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Physiology Essentials 100 (BIOL 1051)
University of South Australia
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Topic 2; cells, tissues and integumentary system Function of plasma;
- Barrier between intracellular and extracellular environment
- Regulates exchanges of molecules
- Sense changes in extracellular environment
- Structural support
- Selectively permeable
- Consist of protein
- Consist of phospholipid bilayer
Name and describe two types of proteins found in plasma membrane
- Integral proteins – span plasma membrane
- Peripheral proteins – bound to inner and outer surface of membrane
Cytoplasm consists of
- Cytosol and organelles
Cytosol consists of
- Intracellular fluid
- Nutrients
- Ions
- Waste products
- Proteins
An organelle is a structure that
- Is suspended within the cytosol and performs a specific function
Organelles Free ribosomes – synthesise proteins for release into cytosol Fixed ribosomes – synthesise proteins and pass them to rough ER Rough ER – modifies/packages new proteins Smooth ER – synthesise lipids and carbs Mitochondria – generate ATP Golgi apparatus – storage, alteration and packing of secretory products Microvilli – increase surface area Which organelle contact nuclear envelope
- Rough ER
Organelle located on rough ER
- Fixed ribosomes
Function of cytoskeleton
- Strength, support and movement of cellular structures and materials
What is the function of the nucleus
- Control centre for cellular operations
- Controls cell metabolism, storage and processing of genetic information
- Controls protein synthesis
True or false, all somatic cells contain 1 nucleus
- False, most contain one but some contain no and some contain many
Protein synthesis
Transport of molecules active or passive
- Whether energy is required to transport molecules across membrane
Passive – no energy Active – requires cell to expend ATP Passive and active transport
- Passive
Diffusion Facilitated diffusion Osmosis
- Active
Exchange pump Exocytosis and endocytosis Role of integral proteins in facilitated diffusion
- Integral proteins bind to specific ions or organic substances and carry them across the
plasma membrane down the gradient What is a vesicle
- A small membranous sac containing a substance, fusion of vesicle to membrane enables bulk
transport of substances in or out of cell Link between golgi and exocytosis
- A vesicle carried modified protein form golgi to membrane to be released into extracellular
space
Major organs of the integumentary system
- Skin hair sweat glands and nails
Function of integumentary system
- Protect against environmental hazards
- Excretion of sale, water, organic wastes
- Maintain of body temp
- Syntheses of vitamin D
2 major part of integumentary system - cutaneous membrane and accessory structures Epidermis consist of
- Stratified squamous epithelial cells
- Keratinocytes and melanocytes
Topic 3 skeletal system Major organs of skeletal system
- Bones, cartilage and ligaments
Skeletal system connective tissue
- Dense connective proper – ligaments
- Supporting connective – cartligae and bones
Functions
- Protection
- Support
- Mineral storage
- Blood cell production
- Leverage
- Lipid storage
Bone matrix consists of
- Extracellular protein fibres ground substance and inorganic
compounds Fours types of bone cells
What is an osteon
- Basic functional unit of a mature compact bone, osteons contain osteocytes that are arranges in
a concentric pattern Name of the meshwork of supporting fibres of spongy bone
- Trabecukalae
Where red bone marrow is found in adults
- Within epiphyses of long and large bones
Marrow
- Red bone marrow – produces red blood cells
- Yellow bone marrow – contain adipose tissues (fat)
Types of ossification
- Endochondrial – most bones, involves replacing hyaline cartilage with bone
- Intramembranous – only occurs in clavicles, mandible and flat bones of skull
Exercise leads to
- Increase bone production by osteoblast
Two hormones that act on bone regulation
- Calcitonin – thyroid gland
- Parathyroid hormone – parathyroid gland
Name of cell found in cartilage
- Chrondrocytes
Most abundant type of fibre in ligaments
- Collagen fibres – aligned parallel to direction of force applied to tissue
Topic 4 nervous system Elements and functions of a neuron
Types of neurons
- Sensory, motor and interneuron
Brain stem major parts
- Bid brain, pons and medulla oblongata
Nerve pathways
Sympathetic, parasympathetic, somatic and autonomic
Topic 5 muscular system Characteristics of each muscle cell
Types of muscle tissues uses aerobic metabolism as energy
- Skeletal (slow fibres only), cardiac and smooth muscle
- Aerobic metabolism is what makes thee tissues fatigue resistant
In comparison to cells the equalvalent to the membrane and cytoplasm would be
- Sarcoplasm and sarcolemma
Components of skeletal muscles and description
Muscles cells factors
Proteins on myofilaments
Two proteins that bind to form a cross bridge
- Actin and myosin
How the sliding filament = muscle contraction
Process of excitation-contraction coupling
Process of muscles contraction
Muscle contraction stops when
- ACh no longer present in synaptic cleft and neuromuscular junction
- Thyroid gland
- Parathyroid gland
- Adrenal gland
- Pancreatic islats
- Gonads
General function of endocrine system
- Adjusts metabolic activity use by the body
- Controls many structural and functional changes during development
Classes of hromones
- Amino acid derivatives, lipid derivative and peptide hormones
Lipohillic hormones
- Bind to intracellular receptors in target cells and modifies the activity of the target cell by
changing genetic activity Hydrophilic hormones
- Bind to receptors on plasma membrane of target cell modifying target cell by altering
permeability of membrane or activating or inactivating enzymes done by thousands of second messengers linked by a G protein Series of events that occur inside target cell after hormone binding
- Signal transduction
Active and non active hormones
- Freely circulating hormone is the active form of hormone
- Bound hormone are inactive
Factors affecting plasma concentration
- Rate of hormone secretion by endocrine cells
- Extent of binding to plasma proteins
- Extent of binding to target cells
- Rate of removal from blood by metabolic inactivation and excretion
Position of hypothalamus
- Superior to pituitary gland
- In diencephalon
- Adjacent to the thalamus
Hypothalamus integrates NS and endocrine by
- Neurons in the my hypothalamus release 2 hormones via posterior pituitary gland
- Hypothalamus secrete regulatory hormones that control endocrine cells in the anterior
pituitary gland
- Hypothalamus exerts neural control over endocrine cell in adrenal gland
Anterior and posterior over of pituitary gland Anterior – ACTH and TSH Posterior – oxytocin and ADH Anterior lobe and pituitary gland controls
Adrenal gland hormones Cortex; glucocorticoids, androgens, mineralocorticoids Medulla; noradrenaline, adrenaline Adrenaline and noradrenaline controlled
- Adrenal medulla secretes is under direct neural control by hypothalamus
Role of adrenal gland in response to stress
- Sympathetic nervous system provides direct neural stimulation to many tissues and it
stimulates the adrenal gland to release adrenaline and noradrenaline into the bloodstream. Both processes evoke rapid fight or flight responses in the body such as increase HR and blood pressure and energy use and mental alertness Role of HPA axis in response to stress
- Involved in the resistance phase of stress response and activation of this pathway leads to
increased secretion of cortisol into the bloodstream Function of cortisol
- Alters glucose metabolism and inhibits activity of the immune system
Two hormones of the thyroid gland
- T3 and T4, stiulate increased ATP production within target cells which lead to generation of
heat Thyroid negative feedback
Stimulation of C cells in thyroid gland
Effect of calcitriol on intestines
- Increases rate of calcium absorption from food
Calcium homeostasis
Adrenaline in response to stress
- Secretion of adrenaline and nor adrenaline occurs in the alarm phase of stress, activation of
sympathetic nervous system leads to release of adrenaline and noradrenaline from neurons at certain chemical synapses and from the adrenal medulla Functions of adrenaline and noradrenaline
- Increased HR
- Increase blood pressure
- Increased glucose metabolism
Occurs during resistance phase of stress response
- Pancreas releases glucagon
- Adrenal gland releases glucocorticoids
- Adrenal gland releases mineralocorticoids
Metabolic adjustment occurring resistance phase of stress response
- Mobilization of remaining energy reserves
- Conservation of glucose
- Elevation of blood glucose concentration
- Conservation of slats and water
Topic 7 cardio vascular system
Function of blood
- Transport dissolved gasses and nutrients
- Transport hormones
- Transport waste products
- Regulation of PH and ions
- Defense against toxins and pathogens
- Maintenance of body temp and blood volume
Components of blood
- Formed elements (RBC WBC and platelets) and plasma
Plasma consist of
- Water, plasma proteins, other solutes
RBC characterises
- Selectively permeable
- Contain haemoglobin
- Large SA to volume ratio
- Can change shape
Suited to carry oxygen.
- Size
- Shape
- Lack of mitochondria
Production and simulation of RBC
- Erythropoiesis ; erythropoietin (EPO)
Release of EPO by kidneys stimulated by
- decreased level in blood
surface antigens
- proteins on plasma membrane that identify cell to immune system
- A and B are the types of surface antigens
White blood cells
- Platelets
- Osteocytes
- Neutrophils
- Melanocytes
- Lymphocytes
- Keratinocytes
- Erythrocytes
Differences in arteries and veins
Structural features of capillaries
- Exchange substances between blood and tissues, nutrients and oxygen diffuse from blood to
tissues whereas waste products and CO2 diffuse from tissues to blood, the endothelial lining consist of simple squamous epithelium which is well suites to exchange of molecules Blood pressure refers to
- Arterial pressure
- Pressure in arterial system pushing blood through capillary beds
- Expressed as systolic pressure over diastolic pressure
Pulse pressure
- Differences between systolic and diastolic pressure
Factors determining blood pressure
- Blood flow and peripheral resistance
Autoregulation
- Local adjustment within given tissue
- Occurs in response to changes in o2 and co2 levels
- Involves contraction of smooth muscle capillaries
Cardiovascular control centre
- Medulla oblongata
Arterial blood is monitored by
- Receptors located in aortic and carotid sinuses
Carbon dioxide or monitored by
- Receptors in aortic and carotid bodies
Reflex involved in monitoring stretch in aortic and carotid sinuses
- Baroreceptor reflex
Reflex involved in monitoring receptors for pH in aortic and carotid bodies
- Chemoreceptor reflex
Short term and long term cardiovascular regulation
- Short – noradrenaline/norepinephrine and adrenaline/epinephrine
- Long – angiotensin II, erythropoietin, natriuretic peptide, ADH
Hormones increase Blood pressure
- Adrenaline
- ADH (increase volume)
- Noradrenaline
- Angiotensin II (increase volume)
Topic 8 urinary system Kidneys blood supply
- Renal artery
Functions of the kidney
- Excretion; removal of metabolic wastes from body fluids
- Elimination; discharge of wastes from body
- Homeostatic regulation of blood volume and solute concentration
Functions of the urinary system
- Regulation of blood volume
- Regulation of blood pressure
- Conserving valuable nutrients
- Stabilisation of blood pH
- Assisting liver in detoxification of poisons
- Regulation of plasma ion concentrations
Type of capillaries allows blood filtration
- Glomerulus; fenestrated capillaries
Filtrate produce in renal corpuscle reabsorbed into proximal convoluted tubule
- 60-70%
- Sodium ions
- Amino acids
- Glucose
Where does calcium reabsorption occur
- Distal convolutes tubule; parathyroid hormone
Hormone which stimulates reabsorption of water
- ADH
Most tubular secretion occurs in the
- Distal convoluted tubule
Substances secreted in the nephron
- Undesirable substances
- Organic acids
- Hydrogen ions
- Bicarbonate
Pathway of urine
- Passed from the minor calyx into the major calyx which then drain into the renal pelvis which
drains into ureters then into the urinary bladder which is than excreted via the urethra Composition of urine
- Water
- Urea
- Sodium ions
- Potassium ions
- Bicarbonate
- Calcium ions
What epithelial cells line the bladder
- Transitional
Structure near glomerulus involved in both intrinsic and extrinsic regulation of GFR
- Juxtaglomerular complex
what happens when there is a decrease in GFR due to blood flow to kidneys (extrinsic)
what happens when there is a decrease in GFR due to blood flow to kidneys (NS)
Kidneys secrete erythropoietin in response to
- Low oxygen level in kidney tissues
Why does the body produce more RBC in response to low tissue oxygen levels
- RBC carry oxygen in the blood, thus increasing the number of RBC means that the blood can
carry more oxygen to the tissues Topic 9 lymphatic and immunity Characteristics of lymph
- Contains lymphoid cells
- Fluid that is transport towards heart
- Fluid that resembles plasma
Direction of flow between arterioles, venules, capillaries, lymphatic vessels and tissues
- Fluid moves from arterioles to blood capillaries and into tissues. The blood capillaries deliver
more fluid to the tissues than they carry away via the venules. The excess fluid in tissues returns to the blood stream through lymphatic vessels Where does lymph enter blood
- Subclavian veins
Four components of the lymphatic system
- Lymph ( fluid that resembles plasma)
- Lymphatic vessels (begin in peripheral tissues and connect to veins)
Kura cloud answers
Course: Physiology Essentials 100 (BIOL 1051)
University: University of South Australia
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