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Introduction to Trends and Issues
Sales Management (MKTG 446 )
California State University San Marcos
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Introduction to Trends and Issues
1. Introduction
Definition of Terms
Education: Educationists define education as “an entire process of developing human abilities, potentials and behavior. It is an organized and sustained instruction meant to transmit a variety of knowledge, skills and attitudes necessary for the daily activities of life”. Education is also a social process in which an individual attains competence and growth within a selected, chosen and institutionalized setting. In the broadest sense therefore we shall attempt a definition of education as “the art that awakens and cultivates cultural refinement of each individual member of the society according to his/her gifts and opportunities”. In addition, we can add that education comprises “the skills that help transmit, preserve and further cultivate the skills in the experiences of those who inherit them”. Education trends
The term trends in education refer to “the general direction in which our present educational systems, policies, theories and practices are developing or changing”. For any professional educator it is paramount that he/she is intimately aware of the current trends with reference to educational theory and practice within the broad context of social, political, economical, industrial, scientific and technological changes.
Issue
An issue can be defined as a contentious, controversial, important, key, major, pressing, sensitive, thorny, unresolved matter. There are many issues in education that needs to be addressed.
2. The Importance of Studying History of Education
It enables educators to examine in a historical context the educational problems and issues that perplex us today, since they have their roots in the past. Their evaluation in light of historical development would contribute to a better understanding of their nature with a view to improving the quality of action in the present
It improves and strengthens the personal and professional competence of teachers. In essence they are able to develop a viewpoint with regard to:
The aim of education
The principles of curriculum development
The nature of the learner
The process of education
Objectives of various levels of instruction
Educational trends provide a basis for comparison and contrast of different educational systems by evaluating the relative worth of conflicting educational theories and practice. By acquainting with failures of the past centuries we can reduce the possibilities of repeating them and improve on our own educational system
It is also important to acquaint ourselves with the issues that confront our current system of education with an aim of understanding their historical basis with a view to developing informed decisions
African Indigenous System of Education
1. Introduction
Traditional African education has also been used to refer to African Indigenous Education or the Pre-colonial Education. It may not be common knowledge that long before the coming of Arabs and Europeans to Africa, the African people had developed their own system of education. However many Europeans had the impression that Africans were not educated because as they claimed Africans were primitive, savage and with no culture to transmit. This mistaken belief arose from the fact that Africans did not have any formal schools to teach their young ones nor did they know how to read and write. Such views limit the definition of education to schooling or having literacy skills, which by no means provides us with the full meaning of education. Now, when we consider the definition of education, we see it as the “whole process by which one generation transmits their culture from one generation to the succeeding generation” or “the process by which people are prepared to live effectively and efficiently in their environment”. From these definitions, we can clearly see traditional African education was complete and effective in the transmission of knowledge and skills required in preparation for a productive life in the community. Its aims were simple and clear; the content was concrete and practical. Let us now examine the aims, content and methods as used by the African education system.
Think of the community from which you come from and just sit back and reflect on the aims, methods and content of the indigenous education of the people.
I am sure that you definitely have something to share with us. We are going to examine each one of these and compare what you have in mind with the following.
2. The Aims of African Indigenous Education
African education was essential for a living; the main purpose was to train the youth for adulthood within the society. Emphasis was placed in normative and expressive goals. Normative goals were concerned with instilling the accepted standards and beliefs governing the
Family and social life:
The child was equipped with knowledge about their kinship relationships and what their rights and obligations were within it. The child was taught about how to live and serve other people in accordance to the accepted norms, rules, customs and avoidance of taboos and rigorous code of morality. He was taught decency of speech and behaviour, respect for elders and how to share common tasks in the homestead. The child also learnt to imitate the actions of others and assimilate the mood, feelings and ideas of those around him and hence acquire community identity.
Cultural and religious life:
Indigenous education inculcated a religious attitude of life. Religion was concerned with morality. It gave support to the laws and customs of the community and to its accepted rules of conduct, which included courtesy, generosity and honesty. Religion had much to do with moral principles such as conduct of one individual towards another. It was ethical since it controlled the relations of the individual to the community. Morality was largely sanctioned by religion. They, therefore, learnt the right observance on which the welfare of the individual and clan depended. Thus for an African boy or girl, tribal laws and moral code were written in their minds and heart to become part of all thinking and feeling.
Economic life:
The economic role of children featured prominently in training. Within the homestead and its environs. Parents and older relatives were responsible for training in economic responsibilities. Learning by imitation played a big part as the smaller children observed their older members building, herding and hunting in the case of boys; sweeping, carrying firewood, water and cooking for girls.
4. Methods of Instruction
Traditional educators applied various methods of instruction to attain the educational purposes. The methods of instruction were both formal and informal.
The informal methods included:
Play:
Children were left to take their own initiative to make toys for play from the rich environment. Boys imitated activities that were appropriate to their sex. These included such activities as making toys of wooden spears, bows and arrows and shields from the bark. They built model huts and cattle pens for these were the tasks for them when grown-up men. Girls participated in activities of the family and life in the home. They imitated their mothers by such activities as making dolls, plaiting baskets of grass, grounding corn, making little pots of clay and cooking imaginary meals. Children also engaged in other forms of play like wrestling, swinging, chasing one another aimlessly, sliding, and dancing. These promoted socialisation and also the development of language.
Oral literature:
This included teaching through myths, legends, folktales, proverbs, dance and folksongs. Myths were used to teach the young things that are beyond the comprehension of men such as natural phenomena like death, the origin of man, etc. legends were tales fabricated to account for events that took place but were fragments of actual history. They told about people or events that actually happened. Folktales were drawn from day to day happening, which were meant to provide moral and ethical teachings. Virtues such as honesty, hard work, uprightness, and communal unity were reflected in such folktales. Music formed an important part of their daily lives. Many of their rites and ceremonies, feasts and festivals were important sources of teaching. Adults made desirable religious doctrines, practices and experiences available to the young largely through religious ceremonies and instructions from such ceremonies.
Involvement in productive work:
Children learned to become useful by doing and working hand in hand with the adults. Such duties included farming, pastoral or domestic tasks. A child was expected to learn largely by observing and imitating the adults at work. The child was given formal instruction in cases where they make mistakes or perform unsatisfactory work. The child’s age and sex we took into consideration. The amount of complexity of work increased with age and the physical ability of the child.
The formal instruction methods were mainly theoretical and practical inculcation of skills. These included:
Apprenticeship:
Parents who wanted their children to acquire some occupational skills sent their children to work with craftsmen such as potters, blacksmiths, or basket makers who would teach them formally. The same happened with hereditary skills like those of an herbalist in handing over trade secrets.
Formal instructions:
These were provided for in giving constant correction and warning to the child: some aspects of domestic work e. herding, fishing, tending crops and teaching the every day customs and manners
Initiation and circumcision stages:
In African tradition, formal education took the form of succeeding stages of initiation from one status to another. The most remarkable period was during circumcision when both males and females were physically circumcised. Without circumcision, a person was not considered grown up and could hardly have rights of property or even get married. Circumcision was accompanied by formal lessons. Lessons were to deal with such issues as protection of homestead from enemies, marriage and family life, etc
6. Contributions and Criticisms of African Indigenous Education
Contributions
It deals with the realities of life. Traditional education was deeply rooted in the environment both physical and social. It brought children to the world of nature and people
It was guided by the principle of learning by doing. Children received functional learning which largely prepared them to live and perform manual work on the land as well as in specialized occupations
Traditional education tends to reflect on the values and expectations of the society as a whole which should not be abandoned
4.. It plays an important role in instilling the African identity of the child through cultural, moral, political and economic needs of the indigenous society.
Criticisms
Irrelevance in the modern world- its purpose can no longer enable children to adjust themselves comfortably to the dynamics of life.
Its interests were focused on the needs of the group giving very little attention to the individual. It provided very little contact outside the narrow confines of the tribal life
Strong adherence to tradition is a hindrance to development. Traditional African education mainly served a static society as its education aimed at maintaining the status quo. It was non-progressive in adjustment to life as there was no room for individual choice of a new career or choice of profession. Birth fixed to live the social status of each individual hence the lack of incentive to change one’s environment.
No figures or letters were learned. This made it difficult to keep written records for use by future generations. Details were forgotten and often distorted and as the years passed by their oral histories became distorted and adulterated.
The methods of instructed are also criticized because it was devoid of any initiative or a spirit of enterprise. The duty of the learner was to be obedient and submissive to the instruction provided. There was no room for interpretation or explanation. Emphasis was on amassing, assimilating and accepting the known facts. Facts, which were known to be good and therefore supposed to be known by everyone. The products of this system were uncritical with imprisoned minds a system which is irrelevant to the modern world
TOPIC 3: ISLAMIC SYSTEM OF EDUCATION
Learning Outcomes
By the end of this topic you should be able to:
Examine the aims, content and methods of Islamic education
Explain the major features of Islamic education
Discuss the contributions and criticisms of Islamic education
1. Introduction
The term Islam means peace. In a general sense it has been referred to as “complete submission to the will of God”. As a religion, Prophet Mohamed founded it in the year 570 AD in the Middle East. When he attained the age of 40 years, Mohammed received the first revelation of the Koran that led to him being made a prophet. As a prophet he had many followers. However, he and his followers experienced opposition, which led him to flee to medina in the year 622 A. irrespective of the opposition that he experienced, he and his followers fought hard and managed to spread Islam across the borders. In East Africa it was carried across the sea from Persia and Arabia and established along the coast, from where it slowly penetrated into the interior.
Islamic education is mainly formal education. It is based on the fact that knowledge is the greatest gift of God to mankind. All irrespective of age or sex must acquire this knowledge. It should be transmitted and only used for the purpose of worship, control of the universe and for betterment of mankind. Knowledge is found in the Koran and the hadith (traditions of prophet Mohamed). Every Muslim child has to learn how to read and write to be able to read the Koran.
2. Educational Objectives and Curriculum
Generally, the objectives of Islamic education embrace both the spiritual and secular teaching.
Moral and character building
Muslim scholars are in agreement that the essence of Islamic education is moral and character building. Whereas there are other forms of training, Islamic educators emphasize that the basic purpose is to refine morals, educate their spirits, propagate virtue, teach propriety and prepare them for a life full of sincerity and purity. The overall goal is therefore moral refinement and spiritual training and every Muslim teacher is expected to model religious ethics above anything else.
Vocational and secular training
Apart from the cardinal objective of moral training Islamic education also focuses on secular issues of life. When the child finishes the study of the Koran and language he/she is expected to undertake vocational preparation until he/she excels in a profession or trade to enable him/her to earn a living and lead a honorable life, preserving the moral and spiritual and moral aspects of it.
Tafsir- the interpretation of the Koran and the study of literature derived from the koranic commentary.
The study of the hadith (the traditions of Prophet Mohammed)- central in the ilm school
curriculum. The traditions cover a wide range of subjects like marriage, divorce, inheritance and personal conduct. They provide insight into the behavioral expectations of the Muslims and how the Islamic society is organized, administered and governed. The children are usually of all ages and are expected to study the figh- the theory of Islamic sacred law (sharia); the sharia prescribes the peoples’ status, duties, and rights as well as the prospects of eternal punishment or reward.
The ilm students also learn Arabic and literature. The literature is wide-ranging from the madith (praises addressed to prophet Mohammed), sira (stories about the life of Prophet Mohammed and wa’z (literature describing Islamic notions of paradise and hell).
The structure of education at this level is as follows:
Faslu Awal- class one: This level involves reciting the Koran and learning the letters of the alphabet in Arabic language
Faslu Thani – class two: involves learning the meaning of Islam and translating the Koran in local languages
Faslu Thalithu- class three: the learners' study the Koran in details and learn Islamic law and other subjects all in Arabic language
Faslu Rabii: from this level onwards they are more or less like Faslu Thalithu only each level is more advanced than the previous one
Faslu Khamis
Faslu Sadiis
Faslu Sabii
Post-Secondary Level
At this level, the student learns grammar using the mechanical rote learning of grammatical rules. At this stage, the student also decides on which area he wishes to specialize and proceeds to higher institutions of learning. In Kenya we have Jamatul-ilm in Mombasa, Swafaa and Riyadha in lamu. The universities are normally found in Timbuktu, Cairo or Arabian countries. By this time the student has acquired proficiency in Arabic language and can be able
to interpret works by other scholars. On completion of the studies the student receives a “license” empowering him to become a teacher or an imam (a prayer leader in the mosque).
4. Basic Features of Islamic Education
It is not structured according to age; one can access education at any time in life whether in youth or maturity. Students can attend and leave as they deem fit It is not competitive as it places less emphasis on exam and certification. Instead, Islam employs the device of Ijaza – a certificate, which shows the scholarly genealogy linking the student to the line of scholars and teachers whom he/she is indebted for his knowledge. Attached to it is the ishad, which is the list of names of those who have handed down a tradition or have taught, given work to validate the Ijaza.
Certificates awarded can be used for various purposes:
Imam: prayer leader in the mosque
Kadhi: one deals with family affairs like marriage and divorce
Maalim: madrassa teacher
Access to education does not depend on the ability to pay school fees. Fees can be paid in cash or in kind. It is a pious duty of all Muslim scholars to pass knowledge and is rewarded by alms giving. The amount varies with the individual ability to pay fees and not by a fixed amount of fees.
The position of Islamic teachers is very essential. They are held with high esteem. They are considered indispensable since they transmit the knowledge of the Koran, hadith and sharia. The teacher’s qualifications differ from person to person. It does not depend on academic qualification or affiliation to a certain institution. They are expected to live simply and without luxury. The relationship between the teachers and his pupils is generally intimate and personal
Apart from teachers monitors are used. These are big girls and boys who have gone through the Koran several times and are kept in school to earn a little money to assist the teacher
Evaluation of education is done through oral and written tests. Practicals are also used especially in prayer demonstrations
The school starts on Saturday and ends on Wednesday. The exact times of classes vary from one area to another. Holidays are Thursdays and Fridays. There are no rigidly codified rules but only a few conventional ways of behavior, which guide the pupils and the teachers.
The basis of Islamic education is found in the Koran and the hadith (traditions of the prophet Mohammed. The hadith makes Islamic education compulsory as it states that
- It ignores women education even when the Koran and hadith say women should be educated. This, however, differs from one community to another
TOPIC 4: FOUNDATIONS OF FORMAL EDUCATION IN KENYA
1. The Early Missionaries
The coming of white foreigners from the west brought about the western system of education. Before this, the African communities had already developed their own ways of training their younger generation as was discussed in the first topic on African indigenous education. In addition, the coming of Arabs from the east had already seen the development of koranic schools in and around the mosques, which had been built for their worship. Such schools had been well established and were also being attended by the Bantu people who spoke Kiswahili. However, the introduction of western education can rightly be acknowledged by Christian missionaries. The origins of western education are traced to those regions where Christian missionaries successfully established Christianity. Let us first examine the earliest groups of missionaries to come to Kenya before 1910.
The first waves of missionaries were the Roman Catholic missionaries from Portugal who first arrived at the Kenyan coast in the16th and 17th century. They did not remain for long as they were overpowered by the Arabs and left for India. In 1557, the Augustinian Friars established a mission at Mombasa and begun work at Faza and Lamu. They claimed over 600 converts among the local people.
The second wave of missionaries came in the 19th century. Among those who came were:
The church Missionary Society founded in 1799 in the Church of England spearheaded by Johana Krapf (1844) and Johana Rebman (1846)
African Inland Mission (AIM) who settled at Machakos and later moved to Kijabe
Evangelical Lutheran Mission (1891) who settled at Ikutha southern Kitui and later moved to Mlango near Kitui town.
Friends of African Mission party who settled in Mumias and Butere regions
The Church of Scotland Mission settled at Kibwezi and later moved to Kikuyu and central areas of Kenya
The seventh day Adventist (SDA)
The MethodistChurch
Salvation Army
1. The Early Missionaries
1. What reasons do you think brought the Christian missionaries to Africa?
Different schools of thought have given different reasons as to why missionaries came to Africa. Some of the reasons given for the coming of missionaries includes: -
(i) Desire to evangelise, preach or spread the word of God and get converts.
(ii) Desire to civilize the Dark Continent
(iii) To explore and especially find the source of river Nile
(iv) To stop slave trade and introduce legitimate trade
It is also important to explore the effects of industrial revolution in Europe as a pointer to why missionaries went to other countries. The Evangelical revival Movement of 19th century in Europe especially in the Church of England saw many members sponsoring missionaries to go and preach the word of God. Other missionaries were sponsored by the Royal Geographical society, especially for exploration purposes. Likewise, the humanitarians (Philanthropists) sponsored others with an aim of stopping the slave trade. A common feature of missionary settlement was building of a church, a school and a hospital (Dispensary). The schools were used as a centre of getting African converts through evangelising and converting them into Christianity. The opening of the Kenya Uganda railway in 1901 opened the interior of Kenya to many more missionary groups. The building of the railway forced the colonial government to establish colonial posts and Forts where they put a colonial administrator and police to protect the railway from destruction. Some of these posts like Fort Smith (present Dagoretti), Fort Hall (Murang’a), Port Florence (Kisumu) and others grew into towns and later became District headquarters. The missionaries would thus use the railway line and even settle in the Posts or Forts or near them due to the security provided by the colonial government. By 1900, missionaries of different church denomination had settled in the country
- African Response To Missionary Education
First Response:: Rejection
African first response to missionary education was negative. Majority felt that education was interfering with their social and economic way of life, especially because children who would be doing ‘useful’ jobs were kept in school the whole day. The few who accepted western Education included orphans, social outcasts, victims of natural disasters and some parents would send their lazy children to school especially when they thought that this would not interfere with the normal life at home. The missionaries encouraged children to come to school by giving them and their parents things like blankets, sugar and so on. They also encouraged the sons of chiefs to go to school with a promise of continued support in leadership.
Second Response: :Acceptance
By 1918-1920, the African negative attitude to missionaries changed to one of craving for missionary education. This was as a result of seeing what those who had gone to school had achieved for themselves because of their education. The availability of jobs for those who could
As the demand for schools increased the missionaries in their mission to civilise Africans demanded that Africans should abandon their cultural practices, beliefs and customs which had a far reaching reaction amongst Africans
The missionaries also started boarding schools to keep the Africans from their corrupting native environment
2. Colonial Government Participation In Education
By 1900 the colonial government started to have an interest in African education. The government urged the missions to give technical education in their schools. Early commissioners like Charles Elliot and Hayes Sadler wanted to work with missionaries in the provision of educational facilities. Government involvement and participation is usually through making decisions on matters of policy on such issues as structure, scope, content, methods and management of education. The government decisions can be influenced by the social, economic, political, technological demands and climate of the time. In 1900 a debate among the white circles on the educability of the African greatly influenced later decisions. The debate argued that:
The African brain was smaller compared to that of the white man i. 78c inches compared to that of the white, which measured 87cubic inches
The African brain had some puzzling brown spots
Africans lacked some nerves that discouraged them from exercising brain muscles
Africans were generally lazy, sleepy and lethargic
That the African child had poor memory
It was against this background that the colonial administration appointed Nelson Fraser of Bombay University to study and make recommendations on education in tropical Africa.
2. Fraser Commissioner(1908)
Nelson Fraser was a professor at the University of Bombay. He was commissioned to recommend a structure of education in the East African protectorate. Among his terms of reference were “ Not to put forward plans for literacy education of the natives but to consider the possibilities of developing industries among them “(Sifuna, P)
He made the following recommendations:
Education should be given on racial basis; that is education for Europeans, Asians and Africans
African children to be taught an industrial and agricultural type of education
A department of education to be set up and appoint a director to head it.
Some mission schools to be given grants to offer industrial /technical education.
The colonial government responded to Fraser Report by:
Setting up a department of education in 1910 and J. Orr appointed as director to head it. This department went on up to the time of independence.
Schools were set up along racial lines where Europeans schools trained their children as masters and leaders. Asian schools trained their children to be artisans and business people, while the native African was trained to provide cheap labour
The colonial government through the new director of education opened a number of industrial/agriculture schools in areas not effectively served by the missionaries. These were to act as government model schools. Some of these schools were: Machakos Technical School, Maasai school at Narok and Coast school at Waa
The government gave some grants to some missionary schools that were offering technical/industrial education. By 1912 some of the courses offered included: carpentry, agriculture, typing, and blacksmithing
The above indicated the first government participation in education. Among the issues at hand were:
(i) The scope and content of the curriculum
(ii) Control and management of African education
(iii) The nature of education to be offered.
2. The Education Commission (1918/19)
The Education Commission (1918/19)
The reasons that led to the constitution of this commission included:
Ø A number of problems had emerged as different groups attempted to participate in the development of African education, causing the government to bring together various views on the nature of Education. Among the bodies that gave their views were missionaries and settlers.
Ø The government was also not happy with the expansion of village schools where the missionaries seemed to include only literacy education in their instruction. The government was aware of growing rivalry among different mission groups over areas of evangelization.
A school was opened at Kabete in the model of Negroes schools in American called the Jean’s school at Kabete.
Government subsidies to approved mission schools were given which later became grants-in-aid.
About the same time the Phelps Stokes Commission was carrying out its task, the government issued a document called Education Ordinance, which emphasized the following:
Control of mission schools, which had to be registered and licensed and teachers had to be licensed to teach after meeting certain qualifications. Failures to meet the requirements the schools were closed and teachers disqualified.
The director of education was given more authority to inspect schools, withdraw ‘grants-in- aid’ and even to close schools at will.
In matters of finance, the grant-in system was re-emphasized with clear guidelines on government commitment to the mission schools.
District Boards were set up to assist in the management of local schools. This marked a start of African representation and opinion in Education matters.
A central (permanent) advisory committee on Education was established in 1924 on which the Local Nature councils were to be represented. Taxpayers were to contribute two shilling per head to finance Education.
In 1925, the British colonial office issued its first statement on African Education called “ Education Policy in Tropical Africa” popularly known as 1925 memorandum. It laid down thirteen principles, which became the basis for educational policy in African colonies. Among the Principles were: -
Education should be adapted to the needs of the local community
It must preserve the best of the traditional society
It must prepare students for the world.
Other Education initiatives by the government to control education include: -
Establishment of local Native Council
District Education Boards
Other Education ordinances/memorandums of 1931, 1934, 1944
2. The 1925 Memorandum
In 1925, the British colonial office issued its first statement on African Education called “ Education Policy in Tropical Africa” popularly known as 1925 memorandum. It laid down thirteen principles, which became the basis for educational policy in African colonies. Among the Principles were: -
Education should be adapted to the needs of the local community
It must preserve the best of the traditional society
It must prepare students for the world.
Other Education initiatives by the government to control education include: -
Establishment of local Native Council
District Education Boards
Other Education ordinances/memorandums of 1931, 1934, 1944
3 Participation in the Development of Education
African participation in the development of education was witnessed in the growth of the independent school movement. Apparently, it is not documented when Africans began building their own schools. The most noticeable period occurred in Nyanza and Central provinces. It appears that the independent school movement may have started in Nyanza when a separatist church mission (e. Nomiya Luo mission), broke away from the Anglican Church in 1910 and started their own schools. Later the Young Kavirondo Association and the Local Nature Councils joined them. In central province, the growth of independent schools became a movement that led to the formation of two major bodies; namely the Kikuyu Independent Schools Association (KISA) in 1933 and the Kikuyu Karing’a Education Association (KKEA) in 1934. The two groups advocated for the blacks gaining access to education. The KKEA was more militant and opposed to any form of co-operation with the government. For more details on the development of independent school movement refer to the assignment indicated below.
- Independent Churches and Schools Movement in Kenya
This was an expression of African protest against European interference with traditional African economic and political organization. Reasons why independent churches and schools emerged in Kenya.
Introduction to Trends and Issues
Course: Sales Management (MKTG 446 )
University: California State University San Marcos
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