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American Education Part 2
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American Education (Joel H. Spring) Part 2 (Chapters Chapter 5 The Common School and the Threat of Cultural Pluralism The America of and was not a melting pot in the field of education. The protectors of Protestant culture, of which Noah Webster was a leader, worried about the influences of the Irish, African and Native American on the emerging public education system. The common school movement was an attempt to stop these influences from taking root. In his book Pillars of the Republic: Common School and American Society, 17801860, Carl Kaestle wrote that the common school movement was primarily designed to protect the ideology of an American Protestant culture. Joel Spring the author of this chapter states, New Englanders hoped that the common school would eradicate this savage culture. Each of these three cultural groups came to America under different circumstances. The Irish to escape famine in their homeland, the African as slaves and the Native Americans, who were already here. THE IRISH CATHOLICS The origins of the Catholic School system can be found in the centuries old struggle between and Irish cultures. The Irish were not welcome as workers or residents in America, they were called slaves of their passions and savages. One million had immigrated to the U. . Though they were greeted with hostility, they found jobs building roads, railroads, digging canals and in mines. The other problem the Irish had was that they were Catholics. Many Protestants feared that the Catholics Church was the Church of Satan and that the Pope had sent the Irish to undermine the Protestant Church. After feeling excluded from the Common School, they established their own system of independent parochial schools. In New York city in the and the Irish Catholics demanded a share of the state educational funds. They also objected to the use of the King James version of the Bible and text books containing statements. THE AFRICAN AMERICANS The Protestant culture was also threatened the free Africans in the northern states. One difference between the enslaved African in the southern states and their brothers and sisters in the north was the ability to read. The Southern States passed a law between making it a crime to teach a slave to read. Historian Henry Bullock states, that among the southerners there was a general fear that literacy would expose the slaves to abolitionist literature. Limited education in skilled occupations such as mechanics and carpentry was given for particular slaves. However 1860, five percent of slaves learned to read. slaves would pass on their knowledge and skill to other slaves. After Slavery an oral tradition developed around coping with that institution that provided a psychological refuge against the degradation. The African American population in the Northeastern states was only 1860, just one percent of the total population. Nonetheless, White Northerners saw them as a threat to their racial purity. In Philadelphia, African American were only allowed to ride on the front platform of horse drawn street cars and, in New York City, Blacks could only ride on vehicles. In Philadelphia and Cincinnati race riots broke whites in Philadelphia forced blacks to flee in 1834 and, in 1841, whites used a cannon against blacks defending their own homes. After the Massachusetts Education Act of 1789, Boston organized the first comprehensive system of elementary and grammar schools in communities with 200 families. The black population in Boston in 1790 was 766 out of 18,038. There was no law or tradition that excluded African American children from attending public school. While the attendance was low, some blacks went to public as well as private schools. To protect their children from the prejudice of white children, a committee of blacks in 1798 and 1800 asked for a separate system. It was rejected the Boston School Committee on the grounds that they would have to do the same for other groups. A group of thirty six blacks again asked the Boston School Committee in 1806, this time they reversed its position and opened a segregated school with funds from a white philanthropist and the public. A contribution from Abiel Smith in 1815, when he died, was used to support black schools. In 1820, the blacks realized that a segregated education was resulting in an inferior education for their children. Inferior teachers were being appointed and they were being appointed and they were not maintaining school building. In 1833, a subcommittee issued a report that segregated was not benefiting either race. The response was to focus efforts on building a new segregated school. The were the leading schools. These students were selected district trustees until 1890 and after that county judges. The tribal council removed these two Academies from missionary management and placed them under the control of a board of trustees in 1855. A school law was enacted that required male teachers at the Spencer Academy to be college graduates and to have the ability to teach Greek, Latin, French, and German, and female teachers at New Hope Academy to have graduated from a college or normal school and to be able to teach two modern languages besides English. The Choctaw educational system was paralleled that of the success of the Cherokee Nation. They were given land just north of the Choctaw Nation. The Cherokee Nation in 1841, organized a national system of schools with eleven schools in eight districts, and in 1851 it opened academies for males and females. the 1850s, the majority of teachers were Cherokee. Eder and Reyhner write, 1852 the Cherokee Nation had a better common school system than the neighboring states of Arkansas and The establishment of a common or public school system in the United States included educating students for good citizenship, ending poverty and crime, and stimulating national economic growth. A central concern of common school reformers in the 1830s and 1840s was using education to create a common culture, morality, and political ideology. Chapter 6 The Ideology and Politics of the Common School The Common School movement started during the 1830s and 1840s. Common School advocates believed that education would be the key to creating a better society. The reformers believed that education would assure the dominance of Protestant culture , reducing tension between social classes, eliminate crime and poverty, stabilize the political system, and form patriotic citizens. Before the common school period, many public and private school organizations existed. Boston, Massachusetts had established laws requiring provisions of education in the 1790s. States like New York and Pennsylvania supported charity schools. In 1806 and 1816 Ohio passed legislation allowing for the organization of schools supported rent from land and tuition. Ohio created a permanent school fund in 1827. Carl Kaestle and Maris Vinovski found that between 1840 and 1880 the percentage of people under age 20 attending school in Massachusetts had declined. This occurred after the common school movement. The average child in the same period received more days of instruction, and the length of the average school year increased from 150 days in 1840 to 192 days in 1880. They found that one of the primary effects of the common school was leaving private schools and attending public schools. There were three aspects of the common school movement. The first was educating all children in a common schoolhouse. It was thought that if children for a variety of religious, and ethnic backgrounds were educated together, there would be a drop in hostility and friction among social groups. This can be traced to and century. The term was defined as a school that was attended in common all children and in which a common political and social ideology was taught. The second aspect was the idea of using schools as an instrument of government policy. In this concept, the common school was to be a cure for problems. The third aspect was the creation of state agencies to control local schools. It was thought that this was necessary if schools were to carry out government, social, political, and economic policies. In 1812, New York was the first state to create the position of State Superintendent of Schools. In 1837, Horace Mann became the first secretary of the Massachusetts Board of Education. He was called the of the common These three features of the common school movement reflected beliefs about the social and political role of education. The most important was the belief that human nature could be formed, shaped and given direction training within formally organized institutions. Advocates of the Lancasterian and charity schools, believed that schools could be a means of economic and social improvement. The differences that existed within the common school movement brought about the beginning of the modern American school system. THE IDEOLOGY OF THE COMMON SCHOOL MOVEMENT Horace Mann and Henry Barnard were two prominent individuals who campaigned to spread the common school ideology. Educational periodicals and educational organizations were spreading the ideology of the common school. Between 1825 and 1850 over 60 periodicals devoted to education were established: The Massachusetts Common School Journal, edited Horace the Connecticut Common School Journal, edited Henry and those families without children, because common schooling increased the wealth of the entire community, which in turn, increased the value of family property. He believed all members of society benefited economically from common schooling, whether or not they made any direct use of the school. WORKINGMEN AND THE STRUGGLE FOR A REPUBLICAN EDUCATION The parties made educational demands between 1827 and 1835. They supported common schools, but for different reasons from those given common reformers like Horace Mann. While reformers stressed the necessity of common schools as a means of eliminating crime, poverty, and social unrest, the parties argued for the necessity of education as a means which workers could protect themselves from economic and political exploitation. Both groups agreed that a common school education was necessary to eliminate distinctions between the rich and the poor and to promote equality of economic opportunity. The Philadelphia Party nominated and campaigned for candidates to the state legislature. These labor parties quickly spread throughout the states of Pennsylvania, Delaware, Massachusetts, and New York. Education became a central theme of their political campaigns. According to the New York Party, the lack of education among workingmen kept them ignorant of their rights and allowed for exploitation the privileged. They believed that the lack of a common school system was an attempt to deny them their rights and their share of economic and political power. Both reformers and workingmen agreed that education was necessary for the maintenance of a republican and democratic form of government. groups emphasized the necessity of education for the equal sharing of power and the protection of rights. Common school education for all was necessary to reduce distinctions among economic classes. THE WHIGS AND THE DEMOCRATS The Whigs and the Democrats had almost equal shares of the votes in 1828. Most leaders of the common school movement were Whigs. They believed that government should intervene to maintain social order through a centrally managed school system designed to educate moral and responsible citizens. Members of the Democratic party believed that social order would naturally occur and that government intervention and local control of the schools should be minimal. Herbert Ershkowitz and William Shade found that between 1833 and 1843 the voting patterns of the members of each party were different. Both groups believed that education was necessary. They differed over the goals and structure of the educational system. Whigs were concerned with morality, duty and the reduction of social conflict, and they wanted an educational system that would shape moral character, teach social and political duties. They also wanted a system that would reduce conflict among social classes and political groups. They believed these goals could be achieved through centralized supervision state governments. For Whigs, schooling was the key to an ordered society. The Democrats resisted the trend toward centralization of government control and talked mainly about rights and a society of conflicting interests. They argued that government governed too much. Democrats believed that the economy should function without any state intervention and that state monies should not be used to support a common school system. They also believed that true freedom was possible only in a society where there was a minimum of government interference in the social orders. Democrats viewed government attempts to order society as attempts to promote and protect the special privileges of the upper class. The struggle between the Whigs and Democrats over the common school reflected a more general concern about how schools should be controlled and whose values should be taught in a curriculum. This debate has continued into the twentieth century. THE CONTINUING DEBATE ABOUT THE COMMON SCHOOL IDEAL In 1919, Elwood Cubberley was the first major educational historian to portray the common school movement as a battle between liberals and conservatives. He describes liberals as good people who struggle for education for all people against conservatives. Cubberley depicted the common school movement as the correct historical route to the development of an educational system that would benefit the majority of people solving economic, political, and social problems. In 1935, Merle Curti wrote in Social Ideas of American Educators that the common school movement was a major democratic movement designed to extend social benefits to the lower social classes in society. The most dramatic revisions of educational history occurred with the publication in 1968 of Michael Irony of Early School Reform, which deals with the decision in 1860 when voters in Beverly, Massachusetts voted to abolish their high school. For Katz, they also needed education. Charity schools opened for women so that they could learn and teach geography, history and philosophy once only taught to males. This is the beginning of the American School and schoolmarm. Three steps were instrumental into the common school dream. First, a school must be a stable, inexpensive and moral teaching site. Next the schools needed to be standardized as in the ranks of people followed a uniform system of instruction. THE AMERICAN TEACHER Women were essential for a stable teaching environment in graded schools according to men of the nineteenth century. Women were on the whole void of many vices and sins as compared to men. In addition men of the nineteenth century felt that women were born with the innate ability of child rearing. Also women seemed to be able to subject themselves to life styles dictated men such as subjecting their private lives to harsh scrutiny and persecution. Horace Mann came up with five points in 1840 in his Fourth Annual Reportto the Massachusetts State Board depicting characteristics of the ideal teacher. The first is perfect knowledge of all subjects being taught. Next is an aptitude for teaching which can be learned. This coincides with his third point of being able to manage and govern a classroom while building moral character. The last two are good behavior and morality that conformed to social standards and customs. Mann felt school committees needed to check and make sure teachers were moral and virtuous prior to hiring. Furthermore, these new schoolmarms were to be scrutinized and watched throughout their employment to ensure these women maintained a proper and moral public appearance. In 1837, after a trip commissioned to study European education, Calvin Stowe issued a statement called the Report on Elementary Public Education, in which he agreed that women were needed as teachers for primarily the same reasons. However, he felt that women should not be allowed to provide opinions to the public or hold office. In addition, women made schools less expensive to run because of their lower salaries. Much of the social attitude coincided that women were perfect for teaching the graded school. In 1841, the Boston Board, all men, stated three reasons why women were hired as teachers. One reason was that women were inbred to child rearing and therefore were born to teach the graded schools. In addition, women had only one option as a career choice whereas men had many. This meant that men would cause a high turnover rate in the less economical career of teaching. Finally, women were more pure and virtuous on the whole than men were. What the report did not contain was that the cost of schoolmarms were much less expensive than hiring a male teacher, and since this was the only career choice of the time, they would accept the lower pay scale. A woman who was helpful with providing women with teaching jobs was Emma Willard. She was a huge proponent of women teachers. She felt that women needed education so they could raise better sons, so that these sons could make the country better. Included in teacher education, Emma provided character education. Implementing moral character in women caused more openings for schoolmarms that the male society thought was needed in the classroom. In fact, Emma provided instruction credit to females wanting to become teachers. These women would pay back their credit through future earning. The teaching force took a toll during and after the Civil War. Women teachers grew in numbers, but a high turnover rate was contingent of women getting married. Women teachers had to remain pure. Quality was a struggle because many female teachers were young with an average age of 21 years old, many of which were 17. Women still were preferred over men because of smaller salaries. Another reason teaching was disliked was the Many people did not want to pack their belongings from month to month and move constantly in addition to losing pay to room and board in places they did not want to stay. To improve the quality of teachers, Emma Willard and Henry Barnard developed a teacher institute in 1839. A two to four week course one or two times a year was offered to teachers. The courses taught theory and practice of teaching. Initially the teachers paid to attend the course. However, companies and private citizens began to give stipends to increase the aptitude of these teachers in their community. Most of the teachers whom attended were women. This teacher institute was the first form of teacher certification. Paul Mattingly disagreed with the concepts of teaching teachers to be moral. He felt more emphasis should be places in methods for teachers to teach students to be moral upright citizens directly, not indirectly through the teachers themselves. Having schoolmarms teach indirectly kept the teachers from speaking out at public forums. Since the teachers primarily attending the institutes were women, the training only encouraged teachers to show a good example and not assert what they thought were immoral issues. THE MATERNAL MODEL OF INSTRUCTION In much of the early to middle nineteenth century, much of the teaching style memorization and drill. However in Prussia, a Swiss born educator named Johann Pestalozzi developed another way to teach students with keeping the morality in tact. Johann used objects to teach not books. The development of morality depends on education of the senses and Pestalozzi felt the same way with educating There are several reasons for the forming of the bureaucratic formation. One such reason that David Tyack believes is the lack of efficiency. Teaching three hundred students in one room who are of various levels is not efficient even with one master teacher and two assistant teachers. Horace Mann wrote his Seventh Annual Report based on his 1843 visit to Prussia about how the classrooms were divided into groups age and level. This report promoted John Philbrick to develop a model institution in Quincy, Massachusetts, 1848 based on this philosophy. The Quincy School model was adopted the Boston School Committee and 1855, every school building in the city was redesigned according to the Quincy School plan. 1866, the Quincy School model had also spread to other cities across the nation, eventually becoming the standard design for urban elementary schools in the United States. However, small towns still kept the schoolhouse. The form of instruction presented the Quincy plan initiated more hiring of teachers and had principals do less teaching and more administrative duties. With this transformation at the elementary level, there were eight grades all taught mostly female teachers with a male principal. Rosebeth Kanter felt that the distinction of male and female roles was formed. Males would be the managers because of their reasoning skills while women were incapable because their emotions allow them to be focused with small and concerns. School districts formed in accordance with the Massachusetts Law of 1789, which authorized towns to establish boundaries for school support and attendance. These boundaries formed into districts that held meetings, choose officers, hired teachers and selected books. Because supervising schools ranged in scholarly uniformity, Buffalo, New York then established the first superintendent position whose main functions was to devise a uniform curriculum for the graded schools. Many needs caused some changes, which grew into a bureaucratic hierarchy, based on uniform learning. READERS AND THE SPIRIT OF CAPITALISM Not only were there changes in the educational hierarchy, there were changes in the texts used. The McGuffey Reader followed the New England Primer and Noah Spelling Book in the latter of the nineteenth century. The McGuffey Reader taught moral behavior in order to bring wealthy and poor people closer, or at least lessen the animosity. However, the book was still sexist. There are very few references of females in these books even though women were thought to be the nurturers of good behavior and morality. William Holmes McGuffey wrote the McGuffey Reader in the late 1834 or early 1835. These were a series of texts to be used in the common schools. The first series contained a primer, speller and four readers. An additional reader was added in 1844. Also, revisions occurred between 1841 and 1849 along with other revisions in 1853, 1857 and 1879. Each level included stories to teach a lesson. Most of the moral lessons focused on male character issues. This may be due to females having subordinate roles to males or because women were considered to have less character flaws than men, which is enhanced a main reason women were chosen as teachers over men. The lessons pertaining to girls depicted in the reader ranged from overeating, disinterest of education, and untidiness, to charity toward animals and people alike. As for the lessons focusing on boys, nature is the main theme, then charity followed education. In addition to purposes of a more controversial nature, which Richard Mosier discusses in his book, Making the American Mind: Social and Moral Ideas in the McGuffey Readers, the Readermolded attitudes of social and economic behaviors. The main controversy over the McGuffey Reader is found in the economic tales contained in the book. Some feel the stories were written to reduce tension between rich and poor. The rich were to be charitable and the poor should feel gratitude that they do not have to deal with the hardships of the rich. However, some feel that there was a delineation of rich and poor. The rich were rich because they showed homage to God and the poor must have done something to make God angry. All in all, the main purpose of the McGuffey Reader was to teach reading and spelling through a moral lesson. In addition, the books defined the roles of men and women in society through economic status. FEMALE TEACHERS CIVILIZE THE WEST As teaching positions in the Northeast became scarce, many women headed West. One way women obtained teaching jobs were through Catherine organization called the Board of National Popular Education established in 1846. Many of these women were due to deaths of husbands or parents. Also, there was a trend for women to not feel the need to live for a man. Women replaced males with God. These women went where they thought God needed them most. For these teachers, such organizations as the Board of Foreign Missions would send teachers to Native American territories to spread the word of God and Jesus. However, the romantic images of moving West were no always grand. There were many obstacles to overcome and hardships to face such as dirty water and diseases like malaria. Depression set in to many of the pioneer teachers over the fear of the next hardship or disaster. In addition, the impending Civil War made life more dangerous to Northeastern women because the Texans may attack them at anytime. Furthermore, the types of poisonous creatures from the east to the west attempted to the Indians. Charles Mix, the Commissioner of Indian Affairs, stated that errors had been made in the dealings with the southeastern tribes. Commissioner Mix limited the attempts to civilize the Indians because it prevented them from learning the value of an independent property. In Commissioner Annual Report of 1858, provisions for manual labor schools on reservations was emphasized. Mix argued that the Indians should have limited contact with whites and be provided with opportunities to learn about agriculture in manual labor schools. In these schools Indians would learn basic skills in arithmetic, writing, reading and agriculture. Mix felt that this would instrumental in the molding of future generations of Indians. Mix also felt that military force should be on hand to aid in controlling the Indians. This effort did not go over so smoothly with the western Indians who were resistant to the whites who traveled into their lands. In the latter nineteenth century many Indian wars had been taking place. In 1867 the Indian Peace Commission was created Congress to come up with different methods of educating and civilizing the Indians. Replacing the Indian language with English and destroying the Indians customs was the primary focus. These customs were replaced with teaching the Indians allegiance to the U. government. Taking Indian children from their families and sending them to boarding schools so that they would be isolated from the customs and values of their families and ancestors did this. In A History of Indian Education , Jon Reyhner and Jeanne Eder illustrated the connections of between the boarding schools for Indians and the history of Black education in the South. In 1879, Richard Pratt established the first Carlisle Indian School, the first boarding school. Richard Pratt was also responsible for sparking the drive for education of Blacks in the South when he took 17 adult Indian prisoners of war to the Hampton Institute. The aim of the Hampton Institute was to prepare freed slaves to become teachers who could instill work values to other freed slaves. This was also branched out to the children as well. educational philosophies embodied the beliefs of the allotment movement of the late 19th century. The allotment movement was design to distribute commonly held property to individual Indians. In the Annual Report of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs in 1887, Commissioner J.D. Adkins ordered that English should be used exclusively in the schools. Adkins also declared, unity or community of feeling can be established among different peoples unless they are brought to speak the same language, and become imbued with like ideas of Later, in 1889, Commissioner of Indian Affairs Thomas J. Bulletin on Indian Education also stated that only English be allowed at the schools. Additionally, stressing the importance of teaching U. allegiance, Morgan ordered that American flags be flown in front of every Indian school. Morgan also reinforced the belief that the children be placed in boarding schools so that they were not exposed to the cultural influences of their families. These schools were overcrowded and living conditions were poor. The student diet consisted of bread, syrup, and black coffee for breakfast. They would eat bread and boiled potatoes for lunch and dinner as well fifth grade, students would attend class for half of day and work the other half. Their day would start at 5:00 a. and they were constantly being drilled. Some schools would flog students with ropes or jail them for punishment. THE REPORT 1928 saw the introduction of the Meriam report, which ended the massive education effort to change the language and culture of the conquered. The ideas reverse the philosophy of having the children being taken from their families. It stressed the upbringing in their natural setting. The report also argued that the routine and discipline of the Indian Schools destroyed initiative and independence. The report argued that there should be community days at the schools that would integrate education with reservation life and rebuild cultural life of the American Indian. PUERTO RICANS The educational policy regarding Puerto Rico followed the same pattern as that of the Native Americans. The object was to stabilize control over Puerto Rico and maintain the U. influence in the Caribbean and Central America. The places that were affected were Bay, Cuba, and the Panama Canal. The attempt was to strip the Puerto Ricans of their culture build a loyalty to the United States. The goal was to replace the Spanish language with the English language through teaching the Puerto Rican children of the dominant U. culture. In 1898, at the conclusion of the war, Puerto Rico became a colony of the United States. The United interest in the chaos between Cuba and the Spanish was for several reasons. First they wanted to reduce the Spanish influence in America. Second they wanted to protect American owned sugar and tobacco plantations. Third they wanted to establish military bases in the Caribbean. On February 15, 1898 the battleship Maine had been sunk in the Havana harbor. This event sparked the declaration of war. Immediately it was believed that the Spanish were responsible for sinking the Maine but later investigations proved that the explosion on board the ship was a result of a coal fire. President commissioner recruited U. teachers that spoke only English to carry out these patriotic exercises. In San Juan these exercises affected students. Most of teachers were not bilingual but Brumbaugh wanted Spanish to be taught along with English. The second commissioner Samuel policies included sending Puerto Rican teachers and students to the United States to learn about the U. culture and the English language. This way they could teach what they have learned when they have returned. Along with these changes, he tightened up the existing policies. The next commissioner Roland Falkner, ordered that all instruction from first grade on be in just the English language. Appointed Commissioner from 1907 to 1912, Edwin Dexter continued the strong push for patriotism in the schools and added military drill to the schools. In 1912, the Puerto Rican teachers formed a Teachers Association to resist commissioner policies and found some support from the Commissioner from 19121915, Edward Bainter, who believed that students should be taught in Spanish in the first four grades and take English as subject. However, in 1915, students protested when a student was expelled for organizing support of a law requiring Spanish to be the language of instruction in Puerto Rico. This resistance caused the next commissioner, Paul Miller to expel any student who participated in the strikes. This resistance also brought on mixed feelings of independence and U. citizenship, which increased in 1917 when the Jones Act, passed Congress and signed President Woodrow Wilson, obligated Puerto Ricans to serve in the U. Military while refusing them the right to vote. Tensions increased during this time of turmoil when Juan B. Huyke, a Puerto Rican, was appointed commissioner of education from 1921 to 1930. Huyke basically stuck firmly to the policies that were set his predecessors, which caused continued protests and resistance from the Puerto Rican Teachers Association and students and eventually led to the Padin Reform of 1934,which restricted instruction to high school despite all textbooks still being in English. Protest over educational policies and pressure over who was to control school systems continued for almost two decades more, until October 30, 1950, when President Truman signed the Puerto Rican Commonwealth Bill, which granted Puerto Rican more control over their own country and allowed them to restore Spanish in their schools. METHODS OF DECULTURIZATION AND AMERICANIZATION In conclusion, the main goal of the educational policies that effected Native Americans and Puerto Ricans was Americanization and deculturalization. The methods of deculturalization included: Segregation and Isolation Forced change of language Content of curriculum reflecting culture of dominant group Content of textbooks reflecting culture of dominant group Dominated groups are not allowed to express their culture and religion Use of teachers from the dominant group The methods of Americanization include: Flag ceremonies Replacement of local heroes with U. national heroes in school celebrations Patriotic Celebrations Focused study of history on the traditions of the dominant white culture of the United States. Resistance still was present during the early but it was not effective until the and the with the great civil rights movement. Chapter 9 Education and Segregation: Asian Americans, African Americans, and Mexican Americans As with the Native Americans, the Asian Americans, African Americans and Mexican Americans all felt the hostility the European Americans held toward those of other races. The European Americans all felt the United States should be reserved for them and exclude those who did not fit the description of being a white Protestant. Even though the white Americans did not want people of other nationalities in America, they had little reservations about exploiting those workers underpaying them and allowing them to help build the country now known as the United States of America. Many white Americans justified being able to keep a white nation insisting on segregated schools and public facilities. Exploitation did not occur just in the continental United States. Hawaii used the Japanese, Chinese, and Korean immigrants as low paid sugar plant workers while
American Education Part 2
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