Mahon v Osborne [1939] 1 All ER 535
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**Mahon v Osborne [1939] 1 All ER **
Categories: PROFESSIONS; Medical: TORTS; Negligence
Court: COURT OF APPEAL Lord(s): SCOTT, MACKINNON AND GODDARD LJJ
Hearing Date(s): 16, 17, 18 JANUARY, 10 FEBRUARY
Medicine Negligence Surgical operation Swab left in patient Res ipsa loquitur Difficulty of operation Condition of patient Counting of swabs.
The appellant, the resident surgeon, performed an abdominal operation with the help of an anaesthetist, a theatre sister and two nurses. The operation was admittedly a difficult one, and, at its conclusion, the usual count of the swabs which had been used was made, when the surgeon was informed that the count was correct. It was found, as a result of a further operation about 2 months later, that one swab had been left under the part of the liver which is close to the stomach. The patient died, and it was common ground that his death was due to the leaving of the swab in the abdomen. The system in use at the hospital of checking the count of the swabs was fully described in evidence, and was held to be satisfactory. In an action brought by the mother of the deceased against the surgeon for damages for negligence in the performance of the operation, the plaintiff contended that the doctrine of _res ipsa loquitur _ was applicable to the circumstances:
**Held ** (Goddard LJ dissenting) (i) the doctrine of _res ipsa loquitur _ did not apply in the case of a complicated surgical operation, since an ordinary reasonable man, knowing the facts, could not, without the help of expert evidence of the precautions necessary in such a operation, say that the event which had happened must have been due to a failure on the part of the surgeon to exercise due care.
(ii) the counting of the swabs is a task that ought not to be put on the surgeon, but his duty to search for swabs that may have been left in the patient differs according to the nature of the operation and the condition of the patient.
Notes
It is well settled that a surgeon's duty is only to be reasonably skilled in the art which he professes and to be careful in the exercise thereof. He is not required to be as skilful as the most eminent member of his profession, but only to be as skilful as a normally skilful member of it. The present case, however, deals with an extension of this wellsettled principle. It may be that
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what has here been called an extension of the principle can be regarded as purely a question of fact, but it is submitted that, at the lowest, it is a mixed question of fact and law. It would seem to follow from the judgments herein that the measure of skill and care must vary with the nature of the operation, and also with the condition of the patient. Where the condition of the patient makes it essential that the operation shall be concluded at the earliest possible moment, it may be that the surgeon is justified in omitting those extra precautions which he would take in a case where there was no real danger from a prolongation of the time of the operation. In any event, all these are matters upon which the court, and the jury if there is one, must be informed by proper expert evidence, and, having heard such evidence, must decide whether the defendant surgeon has exercised that degree of care and skill which those expert in such matters think to be necessary. It is held that, since these matters do not come within the ordinary experience of mankind, the doctrine or principle of _res ipsa loquitur _ is not applicable to such a case.
As to Degree of Care and Skill Required, see Halsbury (Hailsham Edn), Vol 22, pp 318, 319, paras 600604; and for Cases, see Digest, Vol 34, pp 548, 549, Nos 5773.
Cases referred to
_Ballard v North British Ry Co _ [1923] SC 43; 36 Digest 88, case _581 xix. McGowan v Stott _ (1920) 99 LJKB 357, n; Digest Supp, 143 LT 217. _Scott v London Dock Co _ (1865) 3 H & C 596; 36 Digest 91, 601 , 34 LJEx 220, 13 LT 148.
_Van Wyk v Lewis _ [1924] App D 438 (South Africa). _James v Dunlop _ (1931) British Medical Journal, 25 April. _Lindsey County Council v Marshall _ [1937] AC 97, [1936] 2 All ER 1076; Digest Supp, 105 LJKB 614, 155 LT 297, affg [1935] 1 KB 516.
Appeal
Appeal by the defendant surgeon from a judgment at a trial before Atkinson J, and a special jury at Manchester Assizes, dated 26 April 1938, by way of application for judgment or new trial on appeal. The facts are fully set out in the judgment of Scott LJ.
J Morris KC , _H C Dickens _ and _D H Elletson _ for the appellant. _E Rowson _ and _H H Kingsley _ for the respondent.
_Morris KC: _ The question is whether or not, having regard to the condition of the patient, the surgeon made a reasonable search for swabs before he asked the nurse if the count showed that they were all accounted for. He did make a reasonable search. The nurse's answer being in the affirmative, the surgeon was entitled to rely on the system, which was designed to insure that the swabs were all removed. For a surgeon to overlook a swab is not necessarily negligence in all circumstances. The appellant did nothing wrong, and he was entitled to rely on the system. The judge's references to the judgment of Scrutton LJ, in _James v Dunlop _ amounted to a misdirection.
_Dickens _ followed on the same side.
_Rowson: _ It is the surgeon's duty to remove the swabs. If there is one left in the wound, there is obvious negligence, which requires an answer. The evidence of the appellant's expert witnesses shows that the search that he did make was not sufficient.
_Morris KC _ in reply.
**Page 537 of [1939] 1 All ER **
J Morris KC , _H C Dickens _ and _D H Elletson _ for the appellant. _E Rowson _ and _H H Kingsley _ for the respondent.
10 February 1939. The following judgments were delivered.
**SCOTT LJ. ** This case is one of very great and general importance. It calls for close and anxious attention by reason of the double need on the one hand of enforcing a high standard of care in the surgeon against the grave danger of an overlooked swab, and on the other of protecting the surgeon from the risk of condemnation for actionable want of care where he has in reality been doing his best for his patient, but has, under the urgent need of closing the operation as quickly as possible in the presence of other dangers to the patient, made a slip of memory, perhaps through a failure, unrealised by him, of a mechanical precaution like the swab clip. Whether or not that slip amounts to negligence may be a difficult question. The important principle is that a decision of actionable want of care cannot justly be reached without taking due account of all the circumstances of the particular operation, and the legal standard of care cannot be set higher than that of the ordinarily good and careful practitioner in those circumstances. In the present case, on the evidence given, I feel difficulty in seeing how, with proper direction, a verdict could rightly have been given against the surgeon. However, I cannot say that there was no evidence fit to be left to the jury. We cannot, therefore, enter judgment for the surgeon. Even on the issue of a new trial, the problem for the court is not altogether easy, because of the way in which some of the questions were put to, and answered by, the appellant and other witnesses. I have approached its consideration with all the reluctance to interfere which is proper in a case of the kind tried before a jury, but I have come to the conclusion, for reasons which I will endeavour to make clear in the course of this judgment, that, in spite of the obvious anxiety of the judgeand, no doubt, of the juryto see that justice was done, the appellant did not, in the result, get a satisfactory trial, and that, accordingly, the verdict and judgment should be set aside and a new trial had between the parties.
The appellant was the resident surgeon at the Park Hospital, Daveyhulme, near Manchester. His qualifications were that he was a Fellow of the English Royal College of Surgeons, a Bachelor of Science, a Bachelor of Medicine and a Bachelor of Surgery. At the time of the trial he was 33 years of age, and had been at Park Hospital 2 years months. Over 3,000 operations had been performed during his time there, and there had been no case of a swab being left in a patient. He had himself there performed between 600 and 700 abdominal operations, including many perforation cases, and had had no mishap. The deceased patient, a young man of 24 years of age, had supported his mother out of his wages to the extent of about £1 per week. Both the appellant and the theatre sister, who was the chief nurse at the operation, were made defendants to the writ. The respondent claimed damages both under Lord Campbell's Act as a dependant and under the Law Reform (Miscellaneous Provisions) Act 1934, as administratrix to the estate. The jury found, against the appellant, that he had been negligent, but, in favour of Nurse Ashburner, that she had not been negligent. They
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fixed the damages at £600 in all under the two Acts, £200 under the former and £400 under the latter Act. There is no dispute on amount in the appeal. The verdict in favour of Nurse Ashburner was given in very peculiar circumstances. The plaintiff had made her codefendant with the surgeon. The writ was duly served on her in August 1937, but she had no spare money, imagined that her interest would be looked after by the surgeon, never consulted a solicitor, and failed to enter an appearance. Interlocutory judgment was signed against her in November, but no notice of it was sent to her. She attended the trial solely because the defendant surgeon's legal advisers wanted her evidence. During the trial, the judge obtained her consent, first to the jury assessing damages as between the plaintiff and her, and then to their giving a verdict on the issue of her liability. The observations of the judge, in the presence of the jury, were very favourable to her, and after a still more favourable summing up in her case, the jury not unnaturally held that she had not been negligent.
Over and above the light the case may throw on the right directions to a jury on questions of the nature and measure of a surgeon's duty to his patient in the conduct of operations, and particularly in the conduct of major abdominal operations, it is also important because an unreported decision of the Court of Appeal in 1931 was used by the judge at the trial below as if the sentences he quoted from the judgments of Scrutton and Greer LJJ, laid down propositions of law generally applicable, instead of being statements addressed to, and limited by, the particular facts of that case. His use of it was the more unjustifiable as he had no authorised report of it, but only an incomplete newspaper note, with extracts of the judgment. The notes conveyed an erroneous impression of the scope of the decision, as we were able to see from a complete transcript of the judgments, which was supplied to us. I think that the way in which the judge dealt with it was bound to mislead the jury.
The patient was brought to the Park Hospital at 3 am on 4 March 1937. The defendant surgeon was aroused
rested solely with the defendant, and (ii) that in the ordinary experience of mankind such an event does not happen unless the person in control has failed to exercise due care. The nature even of abdominal operations varies widely, and many considerations enter into it, the degree of urgency, the state of the patient's inside, the complication of his disorder or injury, the condition of his heart, the effects of the anæsthetic, the degree and kind of help which the surgeon hasfor example, whether he is assisted by another surgeonthe efficiency of the team of theatre nurses, the extent of the surgeon's experience and the limits of wise discretion in the particular
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circumstancesfor example, the complications arising out of the operation itself, and the fear of the patient's collapse. In the present case, all the above considerations combine to present a state of things of which the ordinary experience of mankind knows nothing, and, therefore, to make it unsafe to beg the question of proof. I cannot see how it can be said that the first essentials of the rule, if it can be called a rule, apply. It is not necessary to enter upon any analysis of the rule which, as Lord Shaw said in Ballard v North British Ry Co , at p 56, nobody would have called a principle if it had not been in Latin. Lord Atkin in McGowan v Stott , at p 360, treated it as equivalent to a statement that, on the facts in evidence, the plaintiff has satisfied the burden of proof sufficiently to shift it on to the defendant. Lord Dunedin said in _Ballard's _ case, at p 53: '. whether the expression _res ipsa loquitur _ is applicable or not depends upon whether in the circumstances of the particular case, the mere fact of the occurrence which caused hurt or damage is a piece of evidence relevant to infer negligence.'
He then took as a primary illustration, at p 53, the class of cases '. dealing with injury occurring to a servant owing to defective plant, which he was obliged to use and which it was the duty of the employer to supply.'
Where complete control rests with the defendant, and it is the general experience of mankind that the accident in question does not happen without negligence, the maxim may well apply. In the article on Negligence by Goddard LJ, in Halsbury's Laws of England (Hailsham Edn), Vol 23, p 671 et seq , there is a very clear exposition of the law. The initial sentence indicates the necessary limitation of the rule: 'An exception to the general rule that the burden of proof of the alleged negligence is in the first instance on the plaintiff occurs wherever the facts already established are such that the proper and natural inference immediately arising from them is that the injury complained of was caused by the defendant's negligence, or where the event charged as negligence "tells its own story" of negligence on the pert of the defendant, the story he told being clear and unambiguous. To these cases the maxim _res ipsa loquitur _ applies.'
For support of this passage, the first case cited was Scott v London Dock Co . There bags of sugar had fallen on the plaintiff, a Customs officer, from an upper storey of a warehouse. No other evidence was given for the plaintiff. The majority of the court formulated their judgment thus, at p 601: 'There must be reasonable evidence of negligence. 'But where the thing is shown to be under the management of the defendant or his servants, and the accident is such as in the ordinary course of things does not happen if those who have the management use proper care, it affords reasonable evidence, in the absence of explanation by the defendants, that the accident arose from want of care.'
The person to draw "the proper and natural inference immediately arising" when the defendant's counsel submits there is no case is the judge, not the jury. How can the ordinary judge have sufficient knowledge of surgical operations to draw such an inference, or, to apply the phrase in the judgment in Scott v London Dock Co , what does he
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know of "the ordinary course of things" in a complicated abdominal operation? And, if he does not know, is expert evidence admissible to supply the judicial lack of knowledge? However, even if the rule can apply in more surgical cases than I think, there is an additional reason why it cannot apply in the present case. The action was brought, not only against the surgeon, but also against the nurse, and a hospital operation depends on the joint efforts of surgeon and nursing staff. Against which defendant, surgeon or theatre sister, did the presumption arise? There is a further point also. In the present case, counsel for the plaintiff put in the defendant surgeon's answers to interrogatories, and, in so far as they described the operation, the plaintiff made the description part of his case. How can it be said that the rule continued to apply after that?
For these various reasons, I do not think that the principle, if it be one, had any application in the present case. As, however, the defendant's counsel did not elect to stand on his submission that there was no case, it is unnecessary to express any final opinion on the questions involved in his submission. He called the appellant surgeon and the nurses, and led expert evidence from two highly distinguished surgeons, one of whom, the visiting surgeon to the Park Hospital, performed the second operation, with the defendant as his assistant, and located the disastrous swab. Nothing in the case was really left to presumption. None the less, the opening speech of counsel for the plaintiff, with its doctrine of res ipsa loquitur , especially when reinforced by the judge's explanation of that doctrine, and the use the judge made of the newspaper report of the 1931 decision of the Court of Appeal, may well have created a deadly atmosphere for the surgeon in the minds of the jury. This adverse impression may even, in a curious way, have been inadvertently aggravated by one line of defence to the _res ipsa loquitur _ attack which Mr Morris pressed at the trial. His instructions had no doubt made him aware that the defendant and his two experts all held strongly to the view that it is contrary to the patient's interest and, therefore, inadvisable, to put on the surgeon the burden of counting the swabsthat is, the large ones, the only ones used inside the abdomena process which necessarily means counting both in and out, for there may be as many as several dozen used, and thus to distract the surgeon's attention from his proper task and prolong the operation may be gravely dangerous or even fatal to the patient. Both defendant and experts in due course gave evidence to this effect, and expressed
the surgical opinion that for these reasons the duty of counting should, and does, rest solely with the nursing staff in attendance, and primarily on the theatre sister. This, in their minds, carried its corollary that, after the surgeon has removed all the swabs of which he is aware, has asked the sister, "Is the count correct?" and has been told that it is, he is entitled to rely on her answer, sew up the peritoneum, end the surgical shock to the patient's system, and send him back to bed for repose. It was no doubt partly because of
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this medical opinion that defendant's counsel at the trial opened with great emphasis, and proved in much detail, the counting system at the hospital, and laid much stress on it before us. Nevertheless, I think he did it also partly in order to demonstrate to the jury the inapplicability of the _res ipsa loquitur _ presumption to a surgical case like the present.
I return to the operation. An understanding of it is necessary in order to appreciate what appear to me to be the errors of the summing up. It disclosed the duodenal ulcer which the surgeon had diagnosed, with a hole in it the size of a threepenny piece, but the operational position when the abdominal cavity was opened up was one of difficulty and risk. The cavity was full of stomach contents, mostly fluid, but some solid, all of which had escaped into it through the hole in the ulcer. There was an obvious danger of sepsis from these contents if infected by the ulcer. The intestines are usually in a state of continuous movement, but the movement was here much intensified by reason of the fact that throughout the operation the patient was taking the anæsthetic very badly, and had great difficulty in breathing. The diaphragm was pressed down at each breath, and with each pressure further contents of the stomach were forced out into the abdomen. In addition, the whole contents of the abdominal cavity were maintained in a state of violent motion throughout the operation. The remedial work itself consisted, on the one hand, in lifting the stomach so as to stretch the duodenum, and thereby make it accessible to the surgeon, the stomach being held up, resting upon a large swab, in the hands of Nurse Edmunds, and, on the other hand, in the suturing of the hole in the duodenum, which, of course, was done by the surgeon himself. This part of the operation called for great dexterity, on account of the position and size of the hole, and the commotion going on in the whole cavity, but was successfully performed, and nothing turns on this aspect of the surgeon's work.
I now come to the issue of liability. It arises out of the necessity of packing off the organs by means of large swabs, which had subsequently to be removed by the surgeon before closing the peritoneum. To explain the packingoff process, a fullsize model of the body of an adult male lying on his back on the operating table, with the abdomen completely open so as to expose all the different organs, coloured differentially and made separately detachable for demonstration purposes, was before the judge and jury in the court below, and was shown and explained to us on the appeal. During the operation, the patient lay similarly on his back. The frontal wall of the abdomen was opened by a longitudinal cut 6 ins long to the right of the navel. The sides of the wound were turned back and there held by means of numerous clips known as Spencer Wells clips, with or without swabs attached. In addition, some two dozen of these clips were used for clamping the larger blood vessels. Small swabs were in use in the initial stages of the opening up, but not after the abdominal cavity itself was opened, and nothing turns upon their use. As soon as that was done, the next necessity, in order to expose the
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duodenum to view and make room for the surgeon to work upon it, was to pack offthat is, to push backthe adjacent organs likely to interfere. The duodenum is the short tube which leads the contents of the stomach into the small intestine. It lies right at the back of the stomach and almost against the spine, the diaphragm being immediately above it when the person is standing upright. The risk of organs adjacent to the duodenum disturbing the operation was particularly great in the case of the smaller intestine, some 20 ft or so in length, which lay folded back and fore on the top of, at the side of, and under, the stomach, in continual movement as usual, but aggravated by the violent breathing, the intestine tending always to slide into any contiguous open space. The next most important organ to be packed off was the liver, lying, as it does, to the right of, and actually against, the stomach. This was done by inserting a swab between the stomach and the liver and just under the liver. The swabs used for packing off are the ordinary large swabspieces of loosely woven and absorbent cotton material in double thickness, 10 ins by 8 ins, cut square, and bound at the edges with a looped tape 4 ins or 5 ins long firmly sewn on to one corner. When used as a packing swab, the material is folded back and fore into a wad, and this is wedged under or against the part which is to be packed off from the intended scene of operation. The object of the tape is to make the locality of the swab continuously ascertainable during the operation. This is effected by attaching to the end of the tape a steel clip about 5 ins long, known as a Spencer Wells clip. It is like a pair of scissors, with two finger holes at one end and a central pivot, but, at the other end, instead of cutting blades, it has transversely corrugated arms, which, when closed, bite together tightly on the tape, and prevent its being pulled out, the arms themselves being held fast in the closed position by means of a spring catch in the handle end, so devised as not to come undone unless deliberately opened. The loop of tape is long enough to allow the steel clip to lie or hang always outside the margins of the abdominal wound, and so to remain visible. The presence below of a packingoff swab is thus indicated by a clip above, as in a harbour a ground mooring is indicated by a buoy. In a duodenal operation, several of these large swabs may be used for packing off the various organs, and the surgeon thought he used some 8 in the operation in question. In addition, 25 or 30 other large swabs, each held by its Spencer Wells clip, were, he thought, used by him for mopping up loose fluid, etc, in the penultimate stage, but these were always held in the surgeon's hand, and the risk of one of these being left in may be ruled out. There were Spencer Wells clips holding bloodvessels at bleeding points, and these, sticking out or lying on each side of the wound to the number of perhaps three dozen, would, of course, from outside, be indistinguishable from those attached to packingoff swabs. It is the function of the surgeon himself to place all the packingoff swabs in their initial position, and to keep replacing them, or adding others, as the movements of the patient's abdomen, and particularly of the in
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There was no risk of moppingup swabs getting left in, as they never left
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his hand. The mopping up finished, he then proceeded to remove all the packing swabs with Spencer Wells clips attached, and, to use his own phrase, all the swabs of which he was aware. The one inadvertently left in was, when discovered in the second operation, lying just under the liver, close to the stomach, approximately in the very place where the defendant had placed one for packing off the liver in the first operation. It was suggested that it might have moved elsewhere during the first operation and then moved back after the surgeon had finished removal of swabs. As we are ordering a new trial, I say nothing about that suggestion, and, for the purpose of discussing the proper directions to the jury on the defendant's duty in relation to removal of the packing swabs, I think it is right to assume (i) that the swab found in the second operation was the actual one inserted by him under the edge of the liver in the first operation, (ii) that, during the removal stage of the first operation, this swab was still in about the same position as that in which he had placed it, and (iii) that in the process of removal he missed it. The defendant surgeon could think of only two ways in which a packing swab in fact placed by him in the position where the missing one was ultimately foundI will call it the liver swabmight, at the time when he was removing the packing swabs in the first operation, have been missed. The first was the one I have already mentioned namely, that the tape of the swab had slipped out of the Spencer Wells clip, and that the swab itself had, as a result, got covered up by intestines. The second was that one of the bundles of swabs (supposed to contain each) brought to the operating table had in fact contained 6that is to say, one more than it had been counted as containingand that, without knowing it, the defendant Ashburner had handed to the surgeon, and he had taken, what each believed to be one swab, whereas in fact it was two clinging together. To make this theory at all probable, I think that it must also be assumed that the tape of the second swab, both swabs lying at that stage, I suppose, flat and extended, had somehow got folded in so as to be unnoticeable. On these assumptions, the surgeon might perhaps have been led to attach the Spencer Wells clip to the one visible tape, and to that one only, and then to fold both swabs together into one wad, which he then put into position without realising that he had in fact put in two. The difficulty of this theory is that the swab, when disclosed at the second operation, was in fact found folded up, and I cannot see how any internal movements of the organs and liquid contents of the abdominal cavity could have washed the loose swab free from the attached swab and then folded it back again into a nice surgical wad, as it was when found. There was not sufficient evidence about the details of the count to justify any inference from it as to how there came to be an unattached swab at all in the abdominal cavity. The defendant surgeon said in his evidence that, after the discovery of the swab in the second operation, he "sat down to think how on earth it could have been left there." At the trial, he thought the probable
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explanation was that the clip must have slipped off, and, for the purpose of this appeal, I think that we should assume, without deciding, that that is the correct explanation. I do not think it relevant to discuss the way in which the error in the count may have occurred.
Before I discuss the judge's summing up, it is desirable to recall the wellestablished legal measure of a professional man's duty. If he professes an art, he must be reasonably skilled in it. There is no doubt that the defendant surgeon was that. He must also be careful, but the standard of care which the law requires is not insurance against accidental slips. It is such a degree of care as a normally skilful member of the profession may reasonably be expected to exercise in the actual circumstances of the case in question. It is not every slip or mistake which imports negligence, and, in applying the duty of care to the case of a surgeon, it is peculiarly necessary to have regard to the different kinds of circumstances that may present themselves for urgent attention. I will mention a few, applicable to a major abdominal operation, (i) the multiform difficulties presented by the particular circumstances of the operation, (ii) the condition of the patient, and the whole set of problems arising out of the risks to which he is being exposed, (iii) the difficulty of the surgeon's choice between risks, (iv) the paramount need of his discretion being unfettered, if he thinks it right, to take one risk to avoid a greater, (v) at the penultimate stage (swab removal), he may, particularly where the patient has been taking the anæsthetic badly, and is suffering from shock, be so anxious on surgical grounds to bring the operation to an end as rapidly as possible that, in the exercise of his discretion, perhaps unconsciously exercised, as soon as he has completed the removal of all swabs of which he is at that moment aware, he asks the sister for the count, and forthwith starts to close the wound. Supposing the circumstances I have been describing had been found to be the actual facts which obtained here, would he have been negligent? If the evidence of the two independent surgeons be accepted, that may well have been the position in the present case at the stage when the defendant was removing the packing swabs. Their evidence seems to show clearly that, in their view, the process of swab removal of itself involves feeling round with the fingers, or even the hand, where the packing swabs are lying, and that this procedure does actually amount to a search for swabs in those localities. The last answer which the defendant surgeon gave to certain questions seems to indicate that in practice it was his habit too to feel round, when removing the swabs, in the way the two surgeons described in the passages to which I hare just referred: 'Have you ever known of a case before where the forceps have dropped off during the course of the operation? Off the tape? 'Yes.Yes. 'That has happened?Yes. 'Atkinson, J.: Have you noticed that at once?No, not immediately. 'You have found a swab in looking round after?When removing the swabs prior to asking if the count is correct.'
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There you get a description of the man's habit. It was probably very difficult to detect the unflagged presence of a
swab lying low down between the liver and the stomach, and the surgeon's hand may easily have touched it without his recognising its presence. Moreover, in considering the weight of the detailed evidence of the defendant surgeon, it must be remembered that the judge in his summing up gave him very high marks as a witness.
On most of the matters I have been discussing, the judge ought to have given the jury positive help, but he gave none, or almost none, and the explanation is, I think, that he had two legal misconceptions in mind. The first was that the _res ipsa loquitur _ rule raised a strong presumption against the surgeon, made doubly strong by the fact that the patient was unconscious, and did not know what the surgeon was doing in his abdomen. The second was that he believed there to be a positive rule of English law, to be enforced in all abdominal operations, imposing on the surgeon a duty, after removing the packing swabs, "to search and to make sure he has removed all the swabs." He cited to the jury passages in support of this rule of law from two cases. The first was the South African case of Van Wyk v Lewis , a case decided on appeal in the Supreme Court of South Africa. It was an action against a surgeon by a patient who had been injured, but not fatally, by a swab left in her during an abdominal operation on the gall bladder. The judge had decided in favour of the defendant, and the plaintiff appealed. Innes CJ, delivered a judgment of which I should like humbly to express my admiration. Incidentally, he took the same view of _res ipsa loquitur _ in surgical cases as that which I have already expressed. Atkinson J, quoted passages from pp 446, 447 of that judgment which are wholly unexceptionable, but, in making two quotations from the judgment of Wessels J, at p 470, he omitted four lines of the original which would have given balance to the quotation with the jury: 'But we must bear in mind that a surgeon is a human being and not a machine. We must take into consideration the nervous anxiety which almost every surgeon must have in conducting a difficult and what Dr. Lewis calls a ticklish operation.'
His comment to the jury was as follows: 'There you get a principle laid down in that case which shows that in the view of the law there is this duty upon the surgeon to take great care to search and to make sure he has removed all the swabs. Every case has probably got to be determined on its own facts; there may be certain unusual difficulties in cases which have all got to be borne in mind.'
The judge then made three quotations from an English swab case, that of James v Dunlop , in which a jury had found against a defendant surgeon. As the decision laid down no new rule of law, but turned solely on its particular facts, it was never reported in any regular law reports, but an abbreviated note in the British Medical Journal on 25 April 1931, of the hearing of the appeal in the Court of Appeal was supplied to the judge during the trial. It appeared that the defendant in that case had made an application for a new trial on the sole ground that the verdict
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was against the weight of evidence, the summing up of Branson J, being admittedly open to no criticism whatever. The jury, having been thus properly directed, answered "No" to the question: "Did the defendant make such search in the wound as was reasonable and necessary?" They also answered that they were not satisfied that the sister had in fact made any answer at all about the count. The only packingoff swabs involved seem to have been a wall of three close to the gall bladder, which was the organ operated upon. The note contained an inadequate statement of the facts in evidence, and only extracts from the judgments. Greer LJ, was reported as saying during the appellant's argument: 'If only three swabs were used the surgeon would know quite easily without asking the nurse whether all were out.'
The argument in the Court of Appeal (as reported in the British Medical Journal) was almost confined to the contention that the surgeon is wholly protected by the nurse's count, and a submission that the jury ought, on the evidence, to have found that she did in fact make answer that the count was correct. The court naturally refused to disturb the verdict. We had the advantage of being furnished with complete copies of the judgments, and I observe that Scrutton LJ, summarised and approved the summing up of Branson J. 'I approach the case, therefore, from that point of view. No fault can be found with the way in which the judge summed up the case to the jury. He explained to them that doctors do not guarantee success in operations, that there is no warranty that the doctor will succeed in the operation he undertakes. He explained to them the measure of care and skill which the doctor owes to the patientnot such skill as the most eminent man in the profession will show, but the ordinary average skill of an educated practitioner, trained in the profession that he undertakes. That was very clearly left to the jury.'
Later, he brings out very clearly how in that case the swabs kept their rough texture, so as to remain recognisable in the abdomen, and throughout those pages he makes it plain that his views were all based on the particular facts of that case. The other Lords Justices did the same. No general rule of law applicable to operations in general was laid down. The judge quoted two passages from Scrutton LJ, and one from Greer LJ, but made no attempt to explain to the jury that the full meaning of what the Lords Justices said there could only be understood if they were read in the light of the facts and arguments of the particular case. He gave them no such warning, but used the quotations in a way which I think was misleading. Had the real issue been whether the nurse's count wholly relieved the defendant from the duty of care in regard to the removal of swabs, the quotations would have been apt enough. However, the issue below was whether or not, in all the circumstances of the operation, the doctor had failed to exercise reasonable care in regard to the removal of the packing swabs, and in the judge's comments there is no hint of that distinction. What he said was this, again making use of the words "making sure": 'There is the law, quite simple to understand. The doctor is not entitled to rely on the count of the nurse; that he has his duty to perform. You have to look
**Page 551 of [1939] 1 All ER **
at it as though they have not a system of counting. The nurses are there to help them, but the doctors have to discharge their duty by making sure that they have got rid of all the swabs put in.'
is about to receive a check from the theatre sister, whom he knows to be careful, is one of the imponderable factors which he may properly have in mind. Indeed, to have regard to it may sometimes save a patient's life. Remembering always that want of care is a matter of degree, and that the jury can find negligence only if, in the light of all the circumstances, they are satisfied that the surgeon has fallen short of the standard of a reasonably careful surgeon, in those circumstances, can it be said that the judge gave them a sufficient direction? I do not think so. There must be a new trial.
**MACKINNON LJ. ** Five persons were concerned in the operation on 4 MarchMr Osborne, the surgeon, the anæsthetist, Nurse Ashburner, as chief or theatre nurse, Nurse Edmunds, and Nurse Callaghan. The plaintiff, having no means of knowing what happened in the theatre, was in the position of being able to rely on the maxim _res ipsa loquitur _ so as to say that some one or more of these five must have been negligent, since the swab was beyond question left in the abdomen of the deceased. In fact, she sued Mr Osborne, the surgeon, and Miss Ashburner, the chief nurse. One or other of them, or perhaps both, must have been negligent, but it was for the plaintiff to establish her case against either or both. At the trial, the verdict of the jury was that Mr Osborne was negligent but that Nurse Ashburner was not. Mr Osborne appeals against the verdict, asking either that judgment may be entered for him or that there may be a new trial. The proper question as regards Mr Osborne was whether, on the night in question, he had exercised the reasonable degree of skill and care that a surgeon in his position ought to exercisewhether he had done anything that, exercising such skill and care, he ought not to have done, or left undone anything that, exercising such skill and care, he ought to have done. This question involves matters of fact as to which neither the court nor the jury has knowledge. The facts must be proved by the evidence of experts. No such evidence was called for the plaintiff. However, Mr Osborne, and two other eminent surgeons, Mr Bryce and Professor Morley, gave evidence for the defence. Unhappily, the judge did not base his question to the jury upon the evidence that was given as to the practice of surgery. At an early stage of the case, there was handed up to him a newspaper report of a previous case that came before the Court of Appeal in April 1931. The newspaper report contains only some portions of what was said in their judgments by Scrutton, Greer and Slesser LJJ. Since we have been furnished with a shorthand note of the whole of their
**Page 554 of [1939] 1 All ER **
judgments, it is manifest that the newspaper report is entirely misleading. That was a similar case of a swab being left in the abdomen. Expert evidence was there given for the plaintiff by a surgeon. He said that, in the particular circumstances of that case, the defendant had not exercised the proper degree of skill of a surgeon in searching for swabs before closing up the abdomen. Some part of the evidence of this expert is quoted _verbatim _ by Scrutton LJ, and I observe that several times he qualifies his evidence that the defendant ought to have found the swab with the words "in this particular operation." The question in the appeal was whether or not the verdict against the defendant was so much against the weight of evidence that a new trial should be ordered. The decision of the court was simply that, on the evidence in that case, this was not established.
Unfortunately, having only the newspaper report of part of the judgments, the judge treated that case as having laid down a proposition of law binding in other similar cases. At the close of the plaintiff's case, no evidence having been called for her on the surgical question, counsel for defendant submitted that there was no case made out. If he had been bold enough to persist in that contention, I think that the judge would have rightly overruled it. In fact, however, he abandoned it. and called his evidence. When the submission was made, however, Atkinson J, remarked: 'I should have thought it was extremely difficult, if not impossible, for me to say there was no case, in view of the things said by Scrutton and Greer, L., in this case [ _James _ v. Dunlop ].'
Actually, the truth was that in that case all that the Lords Justices said was that the expert witness had given evidence, as patently he had, and that it was evidence on which the jury could reasonably come to the verdict which they gave. To use that as laying down a proposition of law that, in a case where no expert has given any evidence, it must be treated as if he had, in the same words as in the previous case, is manifestly erroneous, and is perhaps a signal instance of the grave danger of allowing a case to be cited from a mere newspaper.
Unhappily, however, the judge's mistaken belief that in _James v Dunlop _ the Court of Appeal enunciated a rule of law, and not merely decided a question of fact on the evidence in that case, persisted. During the cross examination of Mr Bryce, one of the defendant's experts, he read to him one of the remarks of one of the Lords Justices as to the facts proved in that case, and asked if he agreed with it. Later, he said to him, "I do not know how far you agree with the Court of Appeal," and read another remark as to the facts proved in that case. In the course of a discussion with counsel as to the questions to be left to the jury, he said, "The Court of Appeal have been perfectly plain about that," and quoted two sentences of Scrutton LJ, and two sentences of Greer LJ. A little later he said to defendant's counsel: 'The jury may agree with Mr. Rowson. They may think the Court of Appeal was right.'
**Page 555 of [1939] 1 All ER **
The jury, as I was told in answer to my question, were in court, and heard this discussion. In the summing up, the judge said: 'Now, what is the law on the point? The first case I am going to refer to is one decided in South Africa. . The other case is a case in our own Court of Appeal. . The only important part is the law that was laid down by the Court of Appeal, and the law laid down by the Court of Appeal is this.'
He then read two passages from the newspaper's report of the remarks of Scrutton LJ, and one from the remarks of Greer LJ, and concludes: 'There is the law, quite simple to understand. . That is the law, and you have to take it from me, just as I have to take it from the Court of Appeal.'
I repeat that the Court of Appeal in _James v Dunlop _ laid down no rule of law whatever. To quote the remarks of the Lords Justices as to the surgeon's dutybeing remarks only upon the evidence given in that caseas being directions in law in this case, in which no such evidence was given, is plainly a misdirection. However, there remains the question whether or not that misdirection was material, so that the verdict for the plaintiff should be set aside, and that question does remain, for this reason. The actual question put to the jury at the end of the summing up was: "Did the defendant Osborne make a reasonably sufficient search for swabs?" In itself, that question is correct, and, if the jury had been directed to consider that question in the light of such evidence as to the duty of the surgeon as had been given in this case, and without paying attention to any remarks made by anyone, however eminent, as to evidence given in another case eight years ago, no criticism of the summing up could be made.
As I have said, no surgical evidence was called for the plaintiff. Counsel for the defendant, however, not having persisted in his submission at the close of the plaintiff's case, did call Mr Osborne, and two experts, Mr Bryce and Professor Morley. As a result, the plaintiff was entitled to rely upon any evidence given by them as to the nature and extent of the defendant's duty as a reasonably skilful surgeon, and then to contend that, upon some admission by the defendant, that duty had not been fulfilled by him. The evidence was that, at the beginning of the operation, the surgeon cut a line 6 ins long to the right of the navel and through the peritoneum. The abdomen within is filled with the various organs. In order to get at the object concernednamely, the hole in the duodenum to be sewn up the other organs have to be kept off by the use of these packs. In this case, this was the more necessary because the patient had taken the anæsthetic badly, and the intestines were in a constant state of movement from his breathing. About 8 packs altogether had to be so used. The routine is that each pack (a square of gauze of about 9 ins) has a tape sewn to its corner. As each is handed to the surgeon, a Spencer Wells clip is clipped to the tape. Part of the tape and the attached clip remains outside the body, and affords a guide to the existence of the swab within when the time comes to remove it.
**Page 556 of [1939] 1 All ER **
This is the more necessary because the swab within may be displaced by the movement of the intestines from where it is first inserted, and, by becoming discoloured and slimy, may be in itself elusive. The danger of a swab being overlooked is, however, in this and in all other hospitals, further guarded against. A clip may drop off the tape, and its signal be therefore lost. It is physically possible (and has been suggested as the explanation of the disaster in this case) that, when, as it is thought, one swab is handed to the surgeon, there may be two squares of gauze stuck together, but with the tape of one not hanging out. The routine is, therefore, that a careful count of all the swabs used is kept by the theatre sister. At a certain stage, when the surgeon thinks he has extracted all the swabs; he asks the nurse if all the swabs have been accounted for. If she says "Yes," he proceeds to sew up the abdomen. If she says that one or more is not accounted for, he will search for it, and not close up the opening till it is found. The method of this check at this hospitalwith a numbered rack and blackboardwas elaborate, but I need not recount the details. It is the surgeon's duty to put in the swabs. It is his duty to take them out. Mr Osborne said that, after the duodenum had been sewn up, he took out all the swabs which he could see or of which he was aware. This presumably meant all to which he was guided by the tapes and clips. He took them out, not by pulling on the tapes, but by inserting his fingers to take hold of the swabs themselves. It is not immaterial that, on the evidence of Mr Bryce and Professor Morley, it is not desirable for the surgeon to grope within with his hands more than is essential. The patient has necessarily suffered shock by the operation, and, as Professor Morley said: 'Unnecessary manipulation or searching might very easily add to the shock of the patient.'
When Mr Osborne had removed all the swabs of which he was aware, he asked Nurse Ashburner if all the swabs were accounted for. She replied that they were. He thereupon proceeded to close up the opening. In fact, Nurse Ashburner's reply must have been inaccurate, since the one found in the man in June cannot have been accounted for. Yet, with a certain lack of logic, the jury found that Miss Ashburner was not guilty of any negligence. As regards this system, with the check of the number of swabs, Professor Morley, the expert, of the highest qualifications, was asked: 'Supposing a surgeon removes all the packing swabs of which he is aware, and supposing he then asks the theatre sister whether the swabs are all accounted for, in your experience, is that a usual or unusual procedure for the surgeon to adopt?It is the usual custom, both in this country, on the Continent, and in America.'
That being the evidence, it is, I think, material to remember the words of Maugham LJ, in Lindsey County Council v Marshall , at p 540: 'An act cannot, in my opinion, be held to be due to a want of reasonable care if it is in accordance with the general practice of mankind. . A defendant charged with negligence can clear himself if he shows that he has acted in accord with general and approved practice.'
**Page 557 of [1939] 1 All ER **
That being the evidence, it might well be thought that there was no evidence upon which a reasonable jury could find that the defendant had been negligent. However, there was one further point madenamely, that, before asking the question of the nurse, in addition to taking out the swabs that had tapes visibly attached, Mr Osborne ought to have felt about with his hand in the region of the opening to search for a swab or swabs not indicated by a tape or clip. It is said that, first, there was evidence that this was his duty, and, secondly, there was an admission by him that he did not do it. I think that there was some evidence to go to the jury that it was the duty of the surgeon to make some search for swabs by feeling in the vicinity of the opening before asking the question of the nurse. Then, was there any evidence that Osborne failed to do this? As to that, the only evidence must be his own admission. There is a suggested admission by Osborne that he failed to feel round the vicinity of the wound. Mr Rowson's questions are clear, but the witness did not answer them. Mr Rowson asked about the "simple matter of running your hand round inside." The witness answered about "looking around every nook and cranny" and "searching the whole abdomen." The question "If you had done that , have you the slightest doubt but what you would have found the swab?" is lamentably ambiguous. By "that," no doubt, Mr Rowson meant the simple running the hand round. The witness may well have thought that it meant "searching the whole abdomen," which he had
As it is the task of the surgeon to put swabs in, so it is his task to take them out, and in that task he must use that degree of care which is reasonable in the circumstances, and that must depend on the evidence. If, on the whole of the evidence, it is shown that he did not use that standard of care, he cannot absolve himself, if a mistake be made, by saying: "I relied on the nurse." If authority be needed for a proposition which I confess to me seems obvious, it is to be found in James v Dunlop , with a transcript of which we were supplied. The facts, I agree, were very different. The surgeon who gave evidence there was careful to limit his evidence to that
**Page 560 of [1939] 1 All ER **
particular operationthe removal of gall stones. However, remarks were made both by Scrutton LJ, and by Greer LJ, which appear to me to be of general application, and which, if I may humbly say so, exactly express my own opinion. Scrutton LJ, said: 'Before there is any count, there is a duty on the doctor. His duty is to put in the necessary swabs, according to the ordinary course of the operation, to enable the operation to be safely carried out. He puts them in, and it is his duty to use reasonable care to put them in the proper places, and, having put in those comparatively few large swabs (because this question does not seem seriously to arise about small swabs, it is the large walling swabs which are the important matter, some three or four of them), it is his duty to take them out, and that is quite independent of any check or count. He puts them in, and he must take them out. He is the person who knows where he put them in, and he is also the person who knows the amount of movement that can be reasonably expectedI cannot help thinking that it is comparatively slightin the swabs that are put in.'
I think that in using those words Scrutton LJ, was referring to the duty of the surgeon in general, and clearly not merely to the particular operation. Then Greer LJ, after saying that it is a part of the operation, as it must be of any operation, to insert the swabswhich no one would doubtsays: 'Therefore it is quite clear that all these gentlemen [the surgeons] recognise what is only common sensethat, if it is a necessary part of the operation to insert the packs, it is also a necessary part of the operation to remove them. The removal of the packs involves a search after the operation is over by means of the finger of the operator, to ascertain whether the packs have or have not been removed. Surely it further follows that that part of the operation is to be done with the same care and skill as every other part of the operation. The surgeon is not entitled to say: "I need not exercise any care and skill with regard to the removal of the packs, because I have a check upon me in the counting which is being made by the nurses." He may say possibly, though it is unnecessary to decide it in this case: "I am ab

