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Social and Cultural continuity and change
Psychology (PSYC1001)
University of Sydney
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SOCIAL AND CULTURAL CONTINUITY AND CHANGE
Key Concepts:
1. Beliefs: A set of opinions or convictions; ideas we believe in as the truth. Beliefs can come from one’s own experience and reflection, or from what one is told by others 2. Change: The alteration or modification of cultural elements in a society. Change to society can occur at the micro, meso and macro levels. It can be brought about by modernisation processes, including technological innovation. This force results in an alteration to culture. 3. Conflict: A perceived incompatibility of goals or actions. Conflict can occur at all levels in society and its resolution can involve modification to what was previously in place. 4. Continuity: The persistence or consistent experience of cultural elements in a society across time. Continuity can also be referred to as maintenance of the traditions and social structures that bring stability to a society. 5. Cooperation: The ability of individual members of a group to work together to achieve a common goal that is in the group’s interests and that contributes to the continued existence of the group 6. Empowerment : A social process that gives power or authority to people at a micro level, to groups at a meso level, and to institutions at a macro level, allowing them to think, behave, take action, control and make decisions 7. Modernisation: A process of dynamic social change resulting from the diffusion and adoption of the characteristics of apparently more advanced societies by other societies that are apparently less advanced. It involves social transformation whereby the society becomes technologically advanced and updates cultural life. 8. Sustainability: The required development to meet current human needs whether economic, social or environmental, without jeopardising the needs of future generations or the health of the planet for all species depending on it for their existence. Sustainability implies deliberate, responsible and proactive decision- making from the local to the global level and more equitable distribution of resources and minimisation of negative impacts of humans on the planet. 9. Tradition: The body of cultural practices and beliefs that are passed down from generation to generation, often by word of mouth and behavioural modellings, that are integral to the socialisation process and that represent stability and continuity of the society or culture.
10. Values: Deeply held ideas and beliefs that guide our thinking, language and behaviour. Differences in values exist among groups of people in society and are a part of one’s culture. Values can be challenged. 11. Westernisation: A social process where the values, customs and practices of Western industrial capitalism are adopted to form the basis of cultural change.
Nature of continuity and change
Social change refers to long-term differences in human behaviour, cultural values and attitudes. Social change is most often seen in institution of family, education, religion and industry. Changes in social structures and relationships affect social processes, social patterns and social interactions.
Long-term social Changes include:
1. Industrial Revolution 2. Abolition of Slavery 3. Feminist Movement
Change is a Complex Process
Sociologists agree that social change is non-linear and does not follow one single path or pattern
Argument SOCIAL DARWINISM is responsible for change
o Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution to societies as a whole. Drawing on Darwin’s ideas of ‘survival of the fittest’, Social Darwinists proposed that stronger cultures, traits and practices endure because they dominate the weaker aspects of culture. However, social and cultural selection can often be due to a certain group’s beliefs about which culture should remain.
Different levels in society make change a complex process o E., Macro-level change may filter down to affect individuals on a micro level. o Same way if meso-level changes are instigated, they can affect both macro and micro levels of society
Ageing population, net migration, decreased fertility rates, secularisation, increased life expectancy, increased levels of education, increased income and population growth
As the structure and characteristics of the population slowly change, so do the needs and wants of society
Transformative Change
Transformative change may take place in a shorter time frame and is often triggered by technology, strong social movements, rebellions or revolutions Transformative change occurs concurrently at macro, meso and micro levels by significantly altering social structures and systems in society and abruptly shifting people’s expectations, values and actions. This type of change may be profound, permanent and irreversible Groups experiencing inequalities in access to political and legal services, economic opportunities and social life can often trigger social movements. Social movement is about empowered groups taking action to change their circumstances If people don’t change it can cause revolutions, wars, epidemics
Resistance to Change
Individuals may resist social change, such as:
1. The pace of innovation: E., frustration at the frequent release of updated IT product and software versions 2. Differences in beliefs and values: E., denial of legally recognised same-sex marriage 3. Vested interests: E. the loss of assets 4. Tradition: E., superstitions that prevent them from trying new things 5. Fears of the future: E. Removal of monarchies, status depreciation or incr eased complexity in life
Sociologist William Ogburn developed the theory CULTURAL LAG to explain the extended period of time that a culture may take to change.
He suggests that even though the development of tangible technologies may indicate a certain direction for change within society, the non-material culture of values, attitudes and norms resist change and therefore takes much longer to catch up with new
technology. The difference in uptake of changes create maladjustment or ‘lag time’ in society.
Influence of Continuity and Change on the Development of Society
A word on continuity...
According to, sociologist Orlando Patterson, continuity refers to any object, process or type of event that persists between 2 or more periods of time, entailing something that persists and some mechanism that accounts for persistence.
Identity is based on continuities. The impact of choosing to repeat acts and adopt consistent approaches to issues, ideas and habits combine to form personal identity at micro level. Continuities indicate a certain level of cooperation and acceptance in society Staged authenticity is responsible for some continuities in society. Some cultural practices may not be as conventional or genuine as they once were because they are now performed for media exposure and the tourist dollar. o E., the Hawaiian welcome dance or the New Zealand Haka Even if a cultural tradition is thought to be staged, it still provides basic benefits, which may include the promotion of intercultural understanding, an increased awareness of a rich history or a heightened sense of empathy towards, and a greater acceptance of, diversity. Considered more beneficial to promote staged traditions rather than ignore them; otherwise the practice may disappear entirely
Micro Level
Impact of change at micro level will vary depending on individual, peer and family contexts and the extent to which they adopt or resist change Most researchers believe technological change will have a profound impact on society o Raymond Kurzweil’s theory of accelerating change E., suggests that whenever a barrier is presented, new technology will be developed to overcome that barrier and that this progress will become faster, as more problems are encountered, technological innovations will take place
In Asia a lot of the culture is being washed away e. westernised clothing Corporations like Maccas in other countries is very popular. The rise of Western fast food.
Updated Technology Transit Systems Modern Buildings
Drivers: Transnational Corporations, Technology, Immigration, Media, Global Economy, Cultural Transmission and Free Trade
Brakes: Protectionist Policies, Tariffs, Isolationism, Tradition and Conscientious objection
Modernisation
Modernisation is the process of change from traditional to modern society. To be modernised society, a country would have typically have first gone through the process of industrialisation.
Modernisation involves the DECLINE OF TRADITIONAL AUTHORITY AND PRACTICES
Essential specialised institutions such as legislative bodies, education systems and political parties attempt to implement rules and regulations as they negotiate their way through life and fulfil their obligations As institutions and industries evolve, they demand certain labour skills, so people begin to specialise in smaller tasks that make up the whole. Modern societies have pursued goals of economic restructuring to ensure they are predominantly engaged in specialised services, which yield more capital than agriculture
For example:
Modern societies heavily invest in:
o Mass Media o Transport o Communication
These industries are all important for promoting social mobility; that is, the ability of people to improve their social status
Secularisation is when societies move away from strict adherence to a religion, along with its organisations, norms, beliefs, regulations and places of worship Evidence of secularisation process can be found where the influence and control of religion has declined over time, the result being that the focus of activities, service and institutions are no longer religion-based Evidence of modernity can also be seen in the rates of urbanisation, technological developments and changing social relationships ( such as the rise of de-facto couples and he rates of divorce), and aesthetics; that is symbols such as clothing (emphasis on non-essential fashion items) and architecture (high-rise buildings) Once a society has demonstrated these characteristics of modernisation, o Sociologists believe it goes through a process of reflective modernisation, which involves reform and reorganisation of social structures. o Provides an opportunity to redress problems created by modernisation and to question political, economic and environmental management using science and technology to better adapt to changes.
Technological development, Agricultural Development, Urbanisation, Changes in social structure and political and economic development
Westernisation
Westernisation describes the process of aspects of the cultures of the UK, Western Europe and North America (USA and Canada) spreading through the world.
The term comes from these countries’ geographic locations, which are mainly in the Western hemisphere. The diffusion is accelerated by the process of globalisation and closer links between the countries.
Culture is spread rapidly through intergovernmental agreements that facilitate trade and tourism.
The ideas, values, language, fashion, technology, diet, religion, politics, laws and lifestyle of ‘the west’ are widespread, particularly in Asia, Africa and South America. Western cultural domination in some location means a Western lifestyle is highly sought after
Growth of Individualis m Ageing Population s Immigration Status of Women Social Mobility
Developing alternative energy sources Cyber- terrorism Internet access Privacy Weapons trade Disease Control
E-commerce scaling back of pensions and social security payments. Off-shore processing. Free Trade agreements. Industrialisati on. Consumeris m.
Desertificatio n. Sustainability .
freedom and autonomy. Privatisation Colonialism Bureaucratisa tion World Order Domestic Policies Geopolitical conflict.
Social-change theories have been developed in an attempt to tackle the numerous processes and agents of social change.
Directions of Change
Social Change Theorists are also concerned with the directions and patterns of change.
Three major patterns or directions of change, as suggested in sociology source at the University of Qubec in Montreal include:
1. Linear Patterns , suggested in evolutionary theory, claim that change is cumulative, non-repetitive and linear that it involves the transition from small, undifferentiated societies with homogenous culture to large societies with a high degree of structural differentiation and heterogenous culture 2. Cyclical Patterns, imply change is repetitive, which can explain the ris e and fall of civilisations, but also political and economic cycles’ 3. Dialectical Patterns are a combination of the previous two patterns, making a spiral pattern where short-term repetitive change, but llong-term directional change, are evident
Key Features of Social Theories
Four Prominent Social Theories: Conflict, Evolutionary, Functionalist and interactionist
Theory Conflict Theorist Karl Marx, Max Webber, Friedrich Engles, Ludwig
(S) Gumplowicz, George Simmel Focus How social change and are derived from conflict resulting from inequalities and differences in power in any given society Level Macro Assumpt ions
Change and conflict are normal in society
Inequalities in power are built into all social structures
Competition over scarce resources rather than consensus is part of all social groups
Human interaction results in conflict
Abrupt and revolutionary change occurs as a result of conflict Main Points
Society is made up of individuals and groups who compete for scarce resources and power. Competition is an inherent characteristic of humans, according to authors of Sociology: Themes and Perspectives, Michael Harlambos and Martin Holborn
There are inequalities between social structures such as religious groups; therefore, they each have competing agenda and priorities
Classes in society exist; wealthy ruling class (bourgeoise) and working class (proletariat)
Encyclopedia of Social Theory: Ruling class derives its power from owning and controlling resources. Ruling class is able to maintain and build upon resources, gains power and is ultimately self-serving in its actions with no intentions of benefiting society or others. It uses power to influence society and to suppress and exploit the working class
The working class supports the ruling class, but because it lacks resources, and therefore power, it is subject to pressure and constraint imposed by the ruling class
The struggle for power and control of resources reaches a breaking point, at which time revolution will occur and the working class will overthrow ruling class
Sociologist Ian Robertson – States that change is abrupt and convulsive conflict would keep occurring until the working-class revolts and pushes for change against capitalism
Social theorists have broadened the notion of conflict to go beyond class structures so that conflict can now be observed around personal morality, religious, beliefs, gender and age
Equilibrium, New Equilibrium, Disequilibrium Criticism s
Portrays a negative view of society
Neglects social stability
Does not account for incremental change
Modern Western nations have completely avoided the
Theory Functionalists (Structural Functionalism) Theorist (s)
Émile Durkheim, Talcott Parsons, Herbert Spencer; Robert Merton, AR Radcliffe-Brown Focus The ways in which social structures meet social needs Level Macro/Meso Assumpt ions
As societies develop, they become ever more complex and interdependent
Society functions more effectively when there is clear social order and when individual parts of society work in harmony with each other Main Points
Social norms and values that include beliefs, customs, rituals and fashions are the rules that govern social life. ( said by Émile Durkheim)
Society is held together by solidarity and agreement about what is good and worthwhile. People are cooperative and bring social order
In simple societies, there are fewer institutions. A complex society accepts that there are differing institutions such as education systems, business and governmental or family structures. Each institution has a different role, yet allows the society to prosper
Sociologist Talcott Parsons explains that each institution works collaboratively with others to maintain stability. In a healthy society, the parts work together to form a stable state called dynamic equilibrium
Social processes have manifest (intended consequences) and latent (unintended consequences) are called dysfunctions
The interdependence of institutions means that is one institution fails, the other parts of society must adapt to a new form of stability. Dysfunctional institutions will cease to exist
Change comes through consensus, but social change is a hindrance to the development of any society and is viewed as undesirable Criticism s
Emphasis on social stability rather than social change
Explains slow institutional change but cannot deal with rapid change
Does not deal well with economic or technological change
Does not acknowledge the major role of individuals and their actions in social change
Ignores conflict and negative functions – E. divorce in the institution of family, which is naturally occurring feature in society that can bring about change
Theory Interactionist (symbolic interactionism) Theorist (s)
George Mead, Herbert Blumer, Erving Goffman, Charles Cooley Focus Relationships of individuals within their society Level Micro Level Assumpt ions
People help shape the world
Individuals act according to their interpretation of the world Main Points
According to Kent McClelland, - society consist of organised patterned interactions
People look for interactions between individuals; people attach meaning to symbols such as words and music that require interpretation. Interaction and communication create meaning that is how people make sense of their world
People act towards things on the basis of the meanings they take ascribe to those things. The meaning of these things is derived from social interaction
Herbert Blumer maintains that these meaning are handled in and modified through; an interpretative process used by the person in dealing with the things he/she encounters. People adjust their behaviour depending on the actions of others
Negotiation among members of society creates temporary, socially constructed relations that remain in constant flux despite relative stability in the basic framework governing those relations
People play many different roles when interacting and they may change approach depending on the situation. This analysis means that sometimes the roles can be seen as very scripted while other times, people may improvise.
Charles Cooley coined the term ‘the looking-glass self’, of which there are three components: we imagine how we must appear to others; we imagine the judgement of that appearance; and we create our self-image through the judgements of others Criticism s
Difficulty in remaining objective because research is often conducted via interviews and participant observation
Over-emphasis on the individual and not much focus on social structures
Narrow focus on one-to-one interaction
Does not attempt to explain macro-level society change, nor changes to norms and culture
Ignores the effects of social forces and institutions on individual interactions
o Requiring three years of military service from all men, samurai and commoner alike National land tax system was created payment in money rather than rice. This allowed the government to stabilize the national budget From 1870s to 1880s to priority was aimed at changing Japan’s social and economic institutions like the powerful western nations The Meiji created a civic ideology cantered around the emperor Abolition of feudalism made it possible tremendous social and political changes. As millions of people were free to choose their occupation and move without restrictions The Government urbanised Japan by building railway and shipping lines, telegraph and telephone lines, shipyards, mines, munition works and consumer industries The government also introduced a national educational system and a constitution, creating an elected Parliament called the diet. They did this to provide a good environment for national growth, win respect of the westerners, and build support for the modern state Government’s closely monitored schools making sure skills like maths and readings was studied by students as ‘moral training’ To win recognition of the Western Powers and convince them to change the unequal treaties Japan had been forced to sign in the 1850s, Japan changed its entire legal system, adopting a new criminal and civil code after France and Germany. The Western nations revised the treaties in 1894 and excepted Japan as an equal and not an international power. After Japan had been pressured to give the rights of the Chinese Liaotung peninsula the Japanese government learnt to maintain its independence. Japan began to colonize power itself. During the Taisho Period (1912-1926) Japanese citizens began to ask for more voice in the government for more social freedoms During this time, Japanese society and the Japanese political system was significantly more open Until WW1, Japan enjoyed record breaking economic prosperity. Japanese people had more money, leisure, education and the development of mass media After WW1, Japan entered severe economic depression. Japan’s international relations were disrupted by trade tensions and growing international disapproval of Japan’s activities in China but success in the European powers in East Asia strengthen the idea Japan should keep expanding Many of the misunderstandings between West and Japan stemmed from Japan’s sense of alienation from the west
A regulation in 1872 ordered the substitution of Western dress for ceremonial robes The Meiji period saw wider changes in the increased consumption in polished rice, tea, fruit, sugar and soy sauce Meat eating was encouraged by the ‘modernizers’ Fundamental code of Education in 1872 provided the design for a nationally unified government-controlled system to provide for elementary and middle school and universities All these schools employed foreign teachers and were extremely westernized through the increase of teaching law The development of the modernized press grew in speed The 1873 land tax revision influenced the modernisation of the Japanese society as Agricultural productivity increased It was not until the end of WW1 did the Japanese industry took off especially the heavy industry The military was the first to modernize their dress, technology and the hiring of foreign advisors The law along with the law tax revision was a major contributor to the modernization and the driving changes to win foreign approval Japan regressed in areas as in the case of a woman’s possibility to choose a spouse
Japan: The Meiji Restoration
cths.instructure/courses/5962/pages/number-5-continuity-and-change-japan- the-meiji-restoration?module_item_id=
External/Historical Causes
Decision Makers Social Changes in Japan YouTube: Samurai, imyo and Matthew Perry
Nationalism is the outgrowth of urbanization and industrialization. Nationalism includes creating bureaucracies, new systems of education, building a large military, often used to fight off other nation-states. Emerging nations had a lot of conflict. _YouTube: Feature ry – Meiji
- Camm, amm and_
Without the emperor system and the leadership of Emperor Meiji, Japan would not have been successful in becoming a modernized country in the Meiji era The high level of education in pre-modern Japan also contributed to rapid modernization Japan rushed the modernisation of the country to protect herself from possible colonization by Western countries and amend unequal treaties with foreign neighbours Modernisation is said to be “an everlasting process without any terminal point” Several requirements for surviving the future: reducing and accelerating increase of production and consumption, replace logic of growing and developing by a logic of stability and harmony, and halting the search for material abundance and seeking a life style by which a man can be satisfied with things mental and spiritual
Japan in 1961
Before the war Japan’s rigid social structures might have prevented job opportunities Elementary school studies are like the west, but the studies are more varied and more demanding than those in the US Art is a required subject Before 1961 freedom for women was restricted Japan is as modern as any country in the west, but the heritage of Japan’s ancient traditions is still apparent The way clothes are packaged has been influenced by the apparent modern distinctive packaging Before 1961 the training of women was the art of graceful homemaking to prepare for her carefully arranged marriage. Now women can dream about going to University. Before the war very few Japanese women attending university as it was not considered ladylike Fish is the basic meat dish for most Japanese families however beef and chicken have become increasingly popular. An abundant of new appliances are used in the kitchen e. the fridge As the male heir of the family he is not expected to do household chores Also, the dominant role every father plays in the pattern of family life
Evolution of Gender Roles
Japanese women in the medieval japan were mothers, entertainers and sometimes even warriors considered the backbone of the family Often women were relied on the homeopathic medicine and their housewife knowledge of cooking, cleaning and understanding of children and In the medieval japan a women’s freedom was hugely based of her social class o Low class women had to take care of children and do all of the housework not just for themselves but also for the other wealthier families too. These low-class women actually had a lot of freedom Generally, a young girl would obey her father when she married her husband and if she was to widow it was her son Women would also be seen farming alongside men and the money they earned from this could be spend on whatever the women wanted Women of low-class had a say in the marriage and women of high-class lived much stricter lives due to their wealthy and reputation and had the littlest freedom Marriage was seen as very important as a way to keep the clan strong and the family name strong. Family choose someone who was affluent and could increase the wealth of the family. To escape marriage, you could become a nun or a monk and renouncing your social position along with your money. You would then have a reputation of deceitful, treacherous and immoral woman Geishas were respected and admired Female Samurais were trained like men and did sometimes fight in battle alongside their husbands or brothers, but this was quite rare The perfect samurai women would still be submissive to a man yet also docile, humble and intelligent and quick-witted. They would defend their homes and children in desperate needs as they were hardly in battle Even though some women were given the same training as males they were still considered to be weaker and feebler than the males
Life in Japan – Traditional Roles
Men were expected to be loyal to their lords, women were to be loyal to their family and husband WW2 shifted gender roles Women were encouraged by propaganda to be married by the nation Many women worked in munition factories After the war discrimination based on gender was forbidden by the Japanese constitutions
Social and Cultural continuity and change
Course: Psychology (PSYC1001)
University: University of Sydney
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