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Wartime Atrocities - Medical
Wartime East Asia (HIST3420)
University College London
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WARTIME ATROCITIES: ACCOUNTS FROM MISSIONARIES AND
MEDICAL PERSONNEL
Jarris, Letters from China
Anonymous letter entitled ‘Dear Family’
Dear Liliath
Dear Searle
Dear Nina- January 3rd
Dear Nina- January 9th
Dear Nina- January 10th
Dear Family- January 19th
Rabe Documents 10 & 11
Rabe Diary- The Japanese March
Nanking Newsletter
Lary- Faith and War Eyewitnesses to the Japanese invasion of China
Yang Daqing- Convergence or Divergence?
Nanjing newsletter – need an incentive for people to give but also needed to give hope, not wasted funds Westerners giving accounts – more legitimacy arguably How information is obtained? Radio? Word of mouth. Lots of middlemen travelling between countries and cities passing information on. May not land in hands of intended person but will land in the hands of someone o Rabe – letters from random people. Letters circulated in a secretive way (courier) as to avoid persecution from Japanese through censorship May be a particular date on document, but not always reliable o Dear Nina – ‘ this goes by hand. We could not trust it to the ordinary mail, and indeed there is no such thing functioning’ – claims about rape and looting in letter Japanese soldiers couldn’t read handwritten English – some people writing letters would write over typed scripts in handwriting so it would not be detected o ‘My own house has suffered some at the hands of the Japanese soldier, but not as badly as some other places in the city’ Written to Mary/Nina – same person. Trying to tell Mary/Nina to not take everything at face value – hoping she will spread news of situation, prioritise hand-written notes, and read between lines Dear Nina – ‘the Japanese Embassy has offered a time or two to take out letters for us, but we knew they were censoring everything, so one could write almost nothing that one wanted to write’ ‘ Since the Japanese came in it has been hell’
o Only appropriate word to describe the cold blooded murder of soldiers after the capture of the city, raping of women on a widespread scale, deliberate destruction of large sections of the city Letters tell us what’s happening in Nanjing, but also don’t really tell us what happening – what people wanted recipients to think o Dear Nina – ‘there is scarcely a house or building of any sort in Nanking that has not been entered and robbed by Japanese soldiers. A few foreign houses have escaped, but very few’ Need to conceptualise how the letters were operating Read these sources for emotional aspect but it actually goes much deeper – look at the little things that stand out (tempura, symbols, religion, recipient, handwritten notes)
Rabe Diaries
Swastika - show affiliation with the Japanese. Could also be Red Cross but less likely because Japanese stopped vehicles. Humanitarian sign? Roots of swastika o Buddhist symbol - used to mark the location of a Buddhist temple Trying to convey fear of humanity – Rabe says he showed swastika and then they went on their way International committee – diary needed in future. Source of information rather than emotion as in previous examples. In the Toyo trials personal accounts were used as evidence – source of contention said to be heavily in allied favour. From readings of Rabe’s diary we get a sense of political slant. German working in international safety zone among other Europeans. Americans sending in missionaries. Rabe recognises the fact he’s German, is he helping Americans? Question of where you situate foreigners in a very confused setting. More complex way to think about how foreigners operated in China
Minnie Vautrin
There was a list of foreigners in Nanjing, denoted who was there and thus was exempt from persecution. Also people the Chinese could go to for help. o Vautrin – ‘ I’m on the list but I’m not comfortable being on the list’ – list of who to evacuate and protect if necessary. Maybe she’s saying everyone deserves right to be protected. o People on the list have access to embassy, international committee, international safety zone Safety Zone – pecking order, hierarchy, systematised. Only certain people have access, those being the ones in Rabe’s diary, was a public list ‘Keep up the bluff that we are equal to the situation’ – how long can they be ok with the monstrosities of the Japanese and put up with their brutality. Meant to be impartial but increasingly turning against the Japanese o Tipping point – blood bath within safety zone, even safety zone isn’t safe – not an equal situation o Having trouble keeping safety zone safe – worried about city being burnt down Move gasoline supply – Japanese short on rations, don’t want them to take their supplies and use them to do damage. Looting as a means of getting supplies Various portrayals of Japanese army
before everyone else and mundane things like housekeeping and flowerbeds – reality of war comes home ‘we are on a birtish riber ship, and the officers have treated us with royal kindness.’ ‘I’ve never refugeed in such comfort, but even so it’s a tragic business’ ‘All of us having left in haste with a few necessary possessions hurriedly thrown into suitcases, and with homes and household goods, friends, and life work and interests all left behind in confusion and danger, fear and uncertainty ’ ‘Our hearts are heavy with the tragedy of our adopted country and the friends we love’ – personal attachment despite foreign nature. ‘ Channing Pollock was right when he said that The Enemy of us all was war’ ‘They say the city is like a rabbit warren: every few yards there are holes in the ground , and when the alarm sounds, everyone goes underground’ ‘Other missionaries told me later that the hospital was also marked for bombing. In spit of knowing all this, everyone seemed reasonably calm’ ‘That night a heavy wind blew and it was cloudy and rainy , so we felt safe from any return of the planes’ – importance of weather International Red Cross Committee – organised in Hankow ‘A few missionaries and two Legation persons are still in the city. Whether they will be able to get out or not is uncertain. Report has it that the city gates are to be shut’ – 5 December 1937. o Important – bombing before is when people left, during actual raid Nanjing was a ghost city essentially o Foreign privileges became redundant War ‘can’t destroy the friendships which the letters represent, for that is one of the things that are unseen and eternal. But it certainly wreaks havoc with all the material things to which our heart cling’ ‘We seldom get truthful reports of what really happens. Both sides like to minimise their losses and magnify their gains’ ‘I think it would have been better had such a thing as an airplane never been conceived in the mind of man’ ‘People in other countries have almost got discouraged trying to help though the Red Cross and other agencies. The need and distress out here are so tremendous that people feel that nothing they could possibly give or do would be any more than a drop in the bucket, and that discourages them from doing anything at all’ ‘We just don’t know poverty as the orient knows it’ ‘More than the financial value of gifts from abroad is the spiritual value they carry – tangible evidence of the friendliness of folk in other countries – proof that brotherhood still exists in our world ’ ‘It would be easy to think that friendliness and good will had perished from the earth.’ – ‘ nearest neighbours are raining ghastly death on us from the skies’
Dear Family – Nanking, 16 th December 1937
During Japanese occupation of Nanjing – ‘ rapidly changing events and situations’ – hard to settle down, get used to what was happening- all moving so fast Delayed communications – ‘ I shall not know for several more days as regular communications with Shanghai have not yet been re-established’ – upheaval caused by war Reference to missionaries (women) – like Minnie Vautrin – international aid presence there noticed by locals – reference to the help they are giving o Red Cross Society – caring for wounded and destitute there o Focus on civilians struggling throughout cities, didn’t help wounded soldiers. Tone of anger towards them – blaming them for the widespread suffering ‘ This is all we know so far’ – sense that there is more they don’t now. Know a ship was sunk by a Japanese bomb Newspapers wanted to pass on message that ‘ all foreigners in Nanking were safe and that it was all right for the embassy people to return ’ Urged to leave Nanjing but they felt ‘ duty kept us here’ ‘God has sustained us in a wonderful way’ – hope, question of what it is based on? Sense of false idealism ‘ I was able’ to go to southern part of the city – sense of restrictions placed on citizens by Japanese, restricted freedoms Religious references – St. Paul’s Church, St’ Mary’s Hall, St. Hilda’s school, evangelistic workers at St. Pauls (Miss Barnaby) – emphasis on faith of time o Churches as a safe ground, haven – share religion and respect for Gods. Japanese didn’t destroy that, makes sense it would be the remaining beacon of faith o ‘ Pray more’ o ‘We will try honour the new-born king by humble service to his children wherever we happen to be’ – importance of Christ and Christmas – mapping it onto a sense of responsibility, acting under will of God. References to destruction of homes, hotels Loss of hope towards end. Also get a sense of limited knowledge – didn’t know what buildings in Hsiakwan were still standing but most were set fire – turning on Chinese as they torched buildings there to clear view as enemy approached. Tone of resentment towards Japanese for destroying something that was theirs o ‘We had very little hope of saving our buildings’ References to city gate – something that was breached, elitist, emphasising invasion. Longstanding history in Japan, the fact that it was destroyed signified much more than just the fall of a wall - end of dynastic heritage. o ‘ There was lots of fighting’ – war city Unknown fate – doesn’t know what’s happening, how letter will be mailed, what outcome will be - letter as a means of resolve, going through thought process, quantifying events and feelings ‘Safety zone’ – saving lives of countless thousands of civilians who would have otherwise been killed if they stayed in their homes in other parts of city. Responsibility – they’re not welcomed there despite the good they are doing, ‘ shudders at the tough of what it would be if we were not there’ o Vast responsibility – 100,000 in safety area Poverty – those in safety area have nothing, homes destroyed, families torn apart. Food kitchens only for some. o Even when fighting ends, there would be a refugee crisis as many had no where to return to – a tragedy and sense of duty that extends beyond war
Question unanswered of people returning to their homes ASAP. So Safety Committee encouraged police to fulfil duties, assured people they would be well treated now everything was sorted with Japanese officers Duties unfulfilled –any truck that appeared on the streets without a Westerner was commandeered Red Swastika Society (working under their direction) started trucks on Tuesday morning to pick up dead bodies in the Zone – trucks taken (or attempts made to do so) and 14 workers taken away. o Prominence of dead bodies – as well as tension you see prevalence of terror in a zone that is deemed ‘Safe’ – just safe in comparison, not in its own rite Police also interfered with – 50 stationed at Ministry of Justice were marched off “ to be killed ” (ironic), 46 volunteer police also marched off - aggression of Japanese: volunteer police weren’t armed or in uniform – just wore armbands. Described as boy scouts to emphasise predatory nature of Japanese – attacking something that poses no threat and was just doing good for the area Japanese taking everything from them – troops, police, fire trucks – troubled communications between Japanese worsened by the inability of Safety Zone to carry out agreed duties, waiting for Japanese authorities to establish their own government Stalemate situation -Japanese stopping them from doing their duties whilst not doing anything themselves – terrorising force. Cannot support the civilians – breaking down of system for maintaining order and providing necessary services Stage set for Japanese to take over the area peacefully and let normal life continue until rest of city was restored and ordered, but 27 Westerners there and the Chinese population were surprised by the reign of robbery, raping and killing initiated by soldiers on 14th December o Not a strong international presence – just 27 but had a strong hold over the Japanese despite this Trying to shift blame onto Japanese – they are there to do good. Not trying to take power or pose a threat, they are international figures trying to help those who need it. Japanese are obstructing that and repeatedly corrupting their efforts and they want a stop to it. Get a strong sense of the tyranny of Japanese troops – running wild Asking for a restoration of order among troops so normal life of city can continue, then the Safety Committee will cooperate – need for control for good relations Reports pouring in from all over Zone about robbery and rape committed by wandering, uncontrolled soldiers o Dear Nina – ‘the Japanese have stolen from the Germans just as they have from the Americans’, ‘The Japanese embassy apologises. It really is sorry. I think. It has been telling us for nearly three weeks that “strict orders have been issued to the troops ”’ o ‘ I feel almost ashamed that I have said so much about property as if that were the principal thing.. chief thing is not property but life. It is the suffering of the people that counts most’ Makes suggestions to Japanese for maintenance of order in the Zone o Need for regular military police to patrol zone with full power to arrest reckless soldiers (looting, intruding, raping)
o Japanese authorities take over 450 Chinese police assigned by former Chinese Nanking city Government and organise them to maintain peace and order (never broken down in the zone) o Reorganisation of fire department o Send an expert to Nanking to manage the life of civilian population until a new city government can be formed Emphasising superiority of them – they maintained order, but Japanese came in and destroyed the government and instructions. Nothing left but police and firemen and 3 clerks – everyone else left the city. Japanese destroyed the city and population, most educated and active people moved west. Need for things to change – unless situation changes they will face many people starving, supplies running out – food, money, clothing, belonging all stolen by Japanese soldiers Trucks not allowed in to zone – to keep camps from going without food for over a day, Western members of staff had to haul bags of rice in their private cars after dark Stirring up of the people – houses looted, women raped (5x 1 night) o Dear Nina: ‘ literally thousands of cases of rape have occurred. Women have knelt to us begging to help them. Fortunately we sometimes were able to rescue them, sometimes we could not’ Continuing terrorism of Japanese troops – making it impossible to get services started Hard to see how starvation will be prevented among 200,000 Chinese civilians if order isn’t restored among Japanese soldiers Looking for cooperation, order, and a return to sound governance.
University of Nanking
References to incessant bombings – ‘air raids upon the city at all hours of the day and night’ Resilience – repeated efforts to cut Shanghai-Nanjing railway, but railroad remained open. There were significant delays: 7-hour trop now 44 hours. o ‘For eighty days the Japanese had been making every effort to cut the railroad’, ‘rained thousands of bombs’, ‘machine-gunned trains’ – despite all this they failed to overcome the railway crews who repaired damaged tracks and ensured trains always kept running. Emphasising Chinese strength to continue in face of such power and aggression Destruction of Shanghai – all stations but one bombed. Image of frail China and dominant, destructive Japan. Presence of British troops, 2000 refugees Excellent organisation - no disorder or victimising – just destruction Smoke so strong it was compared to a ‘volcano’, bombing in all directions Idea of destruction but no threat – city keeps going, rebuilding o ‘ Bit nervous’ – feelings not matching up with gravity of situation ‘Helpless situation’ , ‘ nothing to do but wait for the worst’ – doom, changing attitude outside Kashing ‘Hot sesame cake’ , drank tea – food-showing status, eating well and travelling. Well off compared to many – privilege endured by foreigners (writer is American) Many refugees in Soochow – women and children mostly, despite mostly fine journey of narrator he still describes there as more cheery and patient than him ‘ Largest mass of suffering humanity I have ever seen’ – ‘lesson in determination and courage’ – sense of keeping going by wounded in Nanjing, so many in pain but people pushed through
Martin Jay – argued history isn’t so much a single historian exploiting the past, but the institution of historians trying to convince each other about the plausibility of their reconstruction. Common acceptance of a historical narrative depends on the intersubjective judgement if the community rather than on any congruence with the ‘truth’ of what really happened Historians categorised as seekers of a workable truth communicable within an improved society – consensus or even convergence among historians may take on the significance of a reasonable measure of truthfulness Question of whether there has been any significant convergence among historians writing on the Rape of Nanjing – often considered the single most notorious Japanese atrocity during the entire Asian-Pacific war. o Question seems stupid on surface – few events in 20th century East Asian history have stirred up more emotions and controversies than Rape of Nanjing Continuing debate in Japan over Nanjing massacre – produced many popular and scholarly books Chang- ‘The Rape of Nanjing: The Forgotten Holocaust of WW2’ – bestseller in US, provoked any reactions among Japanese even though a full Japanese translation is yet to appear – led Chinese to support Chang o Single most widely read book on the subject o Emotionally charged and highly politicised subject – symbol of East Asia’s ‘unmastered past’ Books on it cannot represent commentary in each country as a whole, but they serve as useful starting points in surveying a vast and expanding body of historical writings on the subject Rape of Nanjing became a major case at military tribunals in Nanjing and Tokyo shortly after Japan’s surrender o 5 Japanese officers executed for participating/failing to stop Nanjing atrocities o Verdict of Tokyo trial: Japanese troops in Nanjing engaged in organised and wholesale murder, committed indiscriminate killing and rape, looting and destruction Verdict of Tokyo trial - 200,000 Chinese civilians and POWs murdered in 6 week period, 20, cases of rape Nanjing trial – 300,000 death toll Verdicts serve as a surrogate history of the event for decades to come 20 years before Japanese historian Hora Tomio published first historical study of incident (1967) using mostly tribunal transcripts and a few post-war Japanese recollections
1970s – Nanjing massacre resurfaced to become the centre of a public controversy in Japan following the establishment of diplomatic relations between China and Japan 1971 – Honda Katsuichi (well known reporter for leading newspaper) published a series of startling accounts of Japan’s wartime atrocities in Nanjing and elsewhere in China based on interviews with Chinese survivors. Very influential articles, drew harsh denunciations in Japan o Honda then criticised for a lack of reliable documentation and presenting Chinese exaggerations and propaganda (Suzuki Akira) Suzuki claimed story recounted by Honda’s Chinese informants of two Japanese officers engaging in a contest to kill Chinese with their swords near Nanjing (highly publicised episode, led to their execution after the war) was actually a fabrication by the wartime Japanese press to heighten war fever at home
Break, and then debate fiercely reignited after 1982 - controversy over Japanese government’s screening of history textbooks for unflattering content triggered protest and reignited issues of Japan’s wartime record Tanaka Masaaki laboured diligently after war to discredit war crimes trials and exonerate the contemned Japanese commander-in-chief – wrote ‘ The Fabrication of the Nanjing Massacre ’ o Book heralded by commentators in Japan who denied that the large-scale massacre ever happened
Battle over history raged in the mass media – literary critics, journalists, and self-styled specialists eclipsed professional historians By the late 1980s, heated debate in Japan produced some tangible results for serious historians o Variety of new evidence – private diaries of several commanding Japanese generals in Nanjing and many of ordinary soldiers were made public for the first time o Official military records of many Japanese units involved became available o Many Japanese veterans began to openly admit to atrocities in Nanjing area Official military histories could no longer ignore the events of 1937 1989 – Kaikosha (fraternity organisation of former Imperial Japanese Army cadet academy graduates) published a history of the Battle of Nanjing together with Japanese battle records, diaries, and testimonies. Book largely militarily concerned but made many references to executions of captured Japanese soldiers New Japanese sources meant a new wave of scholarly works appeared. Many historians in Nanjing Incident Study Group (founded by Hora and Honda after textbook controversy) published their works and documents translated from English and Chinese. Have been dubbed a “massacre faction” Debate became largely fixed on basis of differences over scale and nature of atrocities – unbridgeable gap between groups, animosity running high Lawsuit against Japanese ministry of education over textbook screenings o Kasahara Tokushi – member of study group, author of ‘The Nanjing Incident’ – became first historian to weave records of American missionaries and Japanese and Chinese sources into a gripping account of terror brought by Japanese troops Outpouring of Chinese publications on the Nanjing Massacre is more a recent phenomenon without lively internal debate. In response to textbook controversy in Japan and increasing emphasis on patriotism Almost all Chinese writings share a spirited defence of the verdicts of the post-war trials and condemnation of those who deny or question the massacre Shi Young – co-produced a bilingual English-Chinese work on the Rape of Nanjing, termed “ the forgotten Holocaust ” o ‘Undeniable history in photographs’ o Book translated many Japanese documents to English for first time Perhaps no coincidence that it was a second-generation Chinese-American journalist who authored the first non-fiction book on the topic written in a Western language (Chang – The Rape of Nanjing) o Also one of the most comprehensive accounts that explores not only the atrocity but also its post-war remembrance o Chang also made her own discoveries – Diary of German businessman John Rabe o Describes Japanese atrocities in Nanjing from 3 angles: Chinese victims, Japanese perpetrators, Western eyewitnesses –called the ‘ Rashomon perspective’ Chang introduces individual voices and highlights previously under acknowledged role of Westerners who protected Chinese lives in Nanjing Popularity of the book as a vivid human drama Whilst the Rape of Nanjing was a multifaceted and complex event, historians have been concerned with its scale and causes. How it has been remembered after the war has also become questioned. Helpful to examine these issues
Debate in Japan over whether it is appropriate to refer to Rape of Nanjing as the Nanjing Incident o Some Japanese saw ‘Nanjing Massacre’ is inappropriate as it suggests a Chinese bias o Agreement (Sun, Chang, Kashara) that what happened in Nanjing was more than just a mass murder of Chinese soldiers and civilians – encompasses all the atrocities committed by the Japanese troops against Chinese soldiers and civilians , in violation of international combat rules and humanitarian law, during attack and initial occupation of Nanjing
Reappraisal is inevitable, even some Chinese historians agree. Sun said that as long as historians acknowledge the fact that Japanese troops slaughtered Chinese people in large numbers in Nanjing, the issue of whether the 300,000 figure needs to be modified can be discussed. o Revision with a view of whole event rather than in isolation o Obsession with figures reduces an atrocity to abstraction and circumvents a critical examination of the causes and responsibilities for these atrocities – historians in China and Japan both wanting to move discussion beyond “ a sterile argument over body counts ” Sun says “ brutal nature of Japanese militarism and the heroic resistance by Chinese troops ” are the most fundamental. Emphasises Chinese resistance, whilst a factor in intensifying Japanese revenge, should in no way excuse the perpetrators of the atrocities. Goes beyond earlier generalisations about Japanese militarism and takes into consideration the conditions of the battle of Nanjing and wartime psychology
Chang
Also tries to explain why such horrific atrocities took place in Nanjing Aware of complexities of her subject and occasionally acknowledges them by quoting academic historians, but her own description looks at the contrast between back and white, and the grey in between Sun highlights Chinese resistance, Chang almost dismisses the fierce resistance since Chinese soldiers defending Nanjing felt little sense of cohesiveness or purpose Chang correct that much of Japanese chain of command in Nanjing is shrouded in mystery due to lack of published evidence. Subtitled “The Forgotten Holocaust” – shows book as a strong and intentionally provocative indictment of act of ‘forgetting’ in Asia and America Blames mind-set of CW and other political and economic motives for making governments forget about the atrocities of WW Gives credit to a ‘vocal minority’ in Japan that strive to raise public awareness of these issues and pursue Japanese responsibility, but for most part gives a sweeping condemnation of Japanese as “still trying to bury the victims of Nanking into historical oblivion” o Gross oversimplification
Kashara (Japanese Historian)
Builds on earlier Japanese works and discusses disastrous consequences of Chinese defence Demonstrates that senior Japanese commanders in Central China, beginning with General Matsui, acted against the wishes of the general army staff in Tokyo by launching a hasty strike at Nanjing with the hope of bringing about China’s quick capitulation. Did so without adequate precautions or preparation – disastrous effects on Chinese population in and around Nanjing. Also holds Japanese divisional and regimental commanders directly responsible for ordering the execution of disarmed Chinese soldiers and failing to discipline their troops despite widespread atrocities against Chinese civilians Lack of clearly defined war aims, also suggests contempt for Chinese people and sexual abuse of women (deeply rooted in pre-war Japanese society) were fundamental causes of atrocities in Nanjing Multilayers explanation of atrocities in Nanjing prevailing over a blanket condemnation of Japanese militarism or a reduction of event to accidental factors Asks why there is still reluctance on the part of some Japanese to accept these “facts of atrocities” - blames post-war conservative politics in Japan and the Japanese people for not learning of these atrocities in ‘real time’ during the war – didn’t feel the shock felt in China and US Question raised whether the majority of the Japanese during the war would have considered it an atrocity even if they had known about the killing of disarmed Chinese soldiers
Multiple divergent narratives on the event seem irreconcilable – historical truth probably never found – a “ twentieth-century Rashomon ” But now, there is increasing convergence among professional historians on several important issues related to Rape of Nanjing – e. that Japanese troops committed atrocities on a great scale in Nanjing in 1937 is indisputable o Mass executions of Chinese POWs under orders, not but rampant soldiers Nanjing seen as outcome of brutalisation of war in China and deep-rooted tendencies in pre-war Japan International Safety Zone organised by Westerners now recognised as having played a positive role in saving many Chinese. Convergence is still limited, but does have implication for quest for truthful representation of a major atrocity in history. o Communication and discourse play a part in narrowing some of the differences o Studies of the Massacre are becoming international, despite political, cultural and linguistic barriers remaining strong Kashara- although his estimates of death figures differed from Chinese accounts, he has not been disputed by his Chinese counterparts and his papers on the ‘whole picture’ of the Massacre have been published in China Many Japanese works translated into Chines and vice versa Convergence wouldn’t have been possible without the new evidence that came to light in past 20 years Discovery of new evidence triggering great interest among historians and general public globally o 1996 discovery of John Rabe’s diary- translated into Chinese in less than 8 months, ahead of its publication in original German. Then 2 months later was translated to Japanese, and English translation in 1998. Trend towards historiographical convergence over Rape of Nanjing is likely to continue. Would be naïve to expect remaining differences to disappear or be completely resolved Question of how historical reality can be established with certainty on the basis of written evidence – fragmentary, constructed. Much crucial evidence concerning events of Nanjing still unavailable and may never be found (records of over 70% of Japanese military units there haven’t been published or located) Traumatic event like the rape of Nanjing raises difficult issue of role of individual memory in historical reconstruction
Wartime Atrocities - Medical
Module: Wartime East Asia (HIST3420)
University: University College London
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