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Summary Development of English

Summary

Kurs

Development of English (552.235)

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Universität Klagenfurt

Akademisches Jahr: 2018/2019

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Universität Klagenfurt

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Development of English

Session 1

Introduction

Two crucial aspects about language:  It cannot be separated from the people who use it  It is constantly changing and developing Studying how a language develops over time:  Knowing something about the society where its speakers live  Knowing how historical events affected them

The history of English (as a contact language)

Main periods in the history of English:

 Old English 500-  Middle English 1100-  Early Modern English 1500-  (Late Modern English 1700-1900)  Present Day English 1900-present

The relation of historical periods to events and linguistic

characteristics:

 Old English: invasion of Britain by Germanic tribes  English branches off from other West-Germanic dialects  Middle English: Norman Conquest  close contact with French; strong reduction of inflections

Language kinship

 Brot bread  Fleisch flesh  Wasser water  Pater father  Frater brother

Language kinship: father

 Dutch: vader  Gothic: adar  Old Norse: fa þir  German: Vater  Greek: patēr  Sanskrit: pitar  Old Irish athir (initial consonant lost) At one time, languages of a larger part of Europe and part of Asia must have been identical.

 Neutral language in countries with competing indigenous languages

A partial family tree of Indo-European languages

Origins of English

Old English (OE)

 The earliest form of English  Derived from the Germanic languages of Germanic tribes (Angles, Saxons, Jutes, Frisians)  Emerged in the 5th century, from around 449 AD  Used for over 600 years but constantly changing

Why did the Germanic tribes go to Britain in the mid-fifth century AD?

 Looking back in time

Early settlements in Britain

First inhabitants of Britain (~500 BC):

 The Britons (large part of England)  The Picts (Scythia  Ireland  Scotland)  The Scots (Ireland  Scotland)

Tribal groups

Dialects of Celtic languages  Goidelic (Irish, Scottish, Manx)  Brythonic (Welsh, Cornish, Breton)

The Roman invasion of Britain

Occupation by the Romans (43-85 AD):

 First settlements by Julius Caesar (55-56 BC)  Emperor Claudius’ invasion (43 AD); some Celtic resistance (e. Boudicca’s revolt in 61 AD) o Britain like a Roman province (roads, bath houses, theatres, places of worship) o Latin as the language of officialdom; also used by upper-class inhabitants of towns and cities; never supplanted the Celtic languages

The arrival of Germanic tribes

 ~400 AD: Roman Empire under threat & Roman troops in Britain withdrawn to Rome  Britons attacked by the Picts & Scots  Vortigern (leader of the Britons) appeals to the Germanic tribes of north-west Germany & Denmark for help  arrival of the Anglo-Saxons (449 AD -): o Jutes (northern Denmark) o Angles (Danish mainland & islands) o Saxons (north-west Germany) o Frisians (north-east Gemany)

Our sources – need for caution

o Celtic names o Roman names (e. -chester, -port, -street)  Creating new names: o Names of families or tribal groups (Reading  place of Reada’s people, Hastings  Heasta’s people)

Anglo Saxon Word Meaning

Examples of place name barrow wood Barrow-in-Furness bury fortified place Banbury Shaftesbury ford shallow river crossing Stamford ham village Birmingham hamm (a different way of spelling of ham)

enclosure within the bend of a river'

Southhampton Buckingham

hurst wooden hill Staplehurst Chislehurst leigh / lee / ley forest clearing Henley mer /mar /mere lake Cromer port market town Bridport stead /sted place Stanstead stow / stowe meeting place holy place

Stowmarket Padstow ton / tun enclosed village / farmstead / manor

Tonbridge Alton Luton wick / wich Produce of a farm Greenwich (fields) Woolwich (sheep) Butterwick (dairy) Chiswick (cheese) Norwich (?)

The Celtic influence

 Anglo-Saxon Invasions: Celts were driven to the West and North  Celts subdued  little influence on OE overall  Lexical ecidence: o Places names: London (tribal name), Thames (river), Dover (city), Bray (village), Avon (river), Cumberland ( Cymry) o Loanwords through everyday contact: binn (basket), bratt (cloak), torr (peak, rock), luh (lake)

Place names: Celtic or Germanic?

 Celtic: Kil-, kirk- Llan-, Lan-  Germanic: -kirk -church

Latin influence

Phases: - Continental borrowings: Contact between Germanic tribes and Romans (e. words in relation to war, trade, household goods: pund (pound), mil (mile), win (wine), disc...) - Latin through Celtic Transmission: little influence; e. ceaster (L. castra) = element of place names in -c(h)ester, -caster (Winchester, Manchester, Gloucester, Worcester...); few other words: port (L. portus), munt (mountain, L. mons, montem) - Chistinaization: - Conversion to Christianity began in 597: Missionaries – King Aethelberth baptized... - Establishment of churches, monasteries, abbeys, schools - Early borrowings: clerical terms: abbot, alms, altar, angel, anthem, candle,...; domestic terms: mussel, sock, silk, purple...; scholastic terms: school, master, grammar, verse, meter...

 Same forms in OE and ON: e.: burn, cole, drag, fast, gang  Different forms: English terms tend to prevail; however, dialectal doublets as Scandinavian terms, e.: screed, skelle (ON) besides shred, shell (OE)  Some Scandinavian terms replacing OE basic vocabulary: syster vs. OE sweostor, take vs. OE niman, cast vs. OE weorpan  Close relationship, facilitation of “heavy borrowing”: pronouns: they, them, their; conjunctions: though

Scandinavian influence

Grammar:

 Personal pronouns (they, them, their)  Conjunctions (e. though)  Meaning of prepositions (e. with, in OE “against”; cf. German wider)  Morphological units (third person -s)  Preposition in final position (e. “the Danes that the English fought with”)  Verb possible in sentence final position  Contact between different inflectional paradigms led to reduction  Overall: great influence on English grammar and lexicon (about 900 core words); some evidence for dialectal spread in the English Dialect Dictionary; time of the biggest influence (intermixing of people: end of 9th to end of 11th century)

Scandinavian influence on OE vocabulary: more examples

words with [sk] (OE <sc> early palatilised to ): sky, skin, skill,ʃ scrape, scrub, ask, whisk, skirt (cf. OE shirt), dyke (cf. ditch)
[k, g]: kid, dike (cf. ditch), get, give, gild, egg
Germanic [ai]>OE [a:]>PDE [o: ->ə ] but ON [ei] or [e:].ʊ Consequently, aye, nay, hale, reindeer, swain are borrowed from ON.
seafaring: skeg (part of keel protecting rudder), bātswegen (boatswain)
law, outlaw
calques from ON: OE hāmsōcn (heimsuchen)
band, bank, dirt, down, link, root, scales, score, skill, skin, trust, want, window
awkward, flat, loose, low, odd, rotten, sly, tight, weak
verbs: bait, call, cast, clip, die, egg on, lift, get, give, glitter, nag, raise, scare, scout, sprint, take, thrive, thrust

Relationship between borrowed and native words: more examples

1 ON and OE coincide: burn, drag, fast, gang, scrape, thick 2 differences in form: skrede – shred, skelle – shell, skere – sheer (in ME) 3 ON replaces OE: awe [fright] (ON) – eye (OE); egg (ON) – ey (OE); syster (ON) – sweostor (OE) 4 both forms survive: no – nay, whole – hale, from – fro, craft – skill, hide – skin, sick – ill 5 uncommon OE words were reinforced by ON: till, dale, blend, run 6 OE word takes on ON characteristics: give, get [g]; Thursday – OE Thunresdaeg

Form words: more examples

they, their, them – OE hīe, hiera, him
both, same
till, fro (prep)
though ON þēah
scand. at as infinitive marker cf. Engl. ado
aloft, athwart, aye (ever), seemly, heþen (hence), hweþen (whence)
present plural are (OE aron), West Saxon still syndon
third person – s; pres participle endings –and (bindand) (now –ing)
omission of relative pronoun; rule for the use of shall and will

Old English – example

Cædmon’s Hymn – A Christian song of creation in Old English

 Oldest recorded Old English poem: composed 658-  Manuscript evidence: Bede’s Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum

Germanic features of Old English (500-1100)

 Lexicon: (mann, cild, mete, etan, drincan, feohtan)

Synthetic vs. analytic language

Present Day English is an analytic language

 Word order determines the grammatical function of words o Albert shot Sigbert ≠ Sigbert shot Albert

Old English was a synthetic (inflectional) language

 Inflections determine the grammatical functions of words o *-x (subject), -z (object) o * Shot Albertx Sigbertz = Sigbertz shot Albertx

Beon (to be)

Indicative Subjunctive Imperative Present ic eom /beo Present ic sie / beo þu eart / bist þu sie / beo wes / beo he / heo/hit

is / biþ he / heo/hit

sie / beo

we / ge / hi

sindon / beoþ

we / ge / hi

sien / beon wesaþ /beoþ Past ic wæs Past ic wære þu wære þu wære he / heo/hit

wæs he / heo

wære

we / ge / hi

wæron we / ge / hi

wæren

Participles wesende beonde gebeon

Stong and weak nouns

stan (m) Word (n) lufu (f) sunu (m)

Singular Nom stan word lufu sunu Gen stanes wordes lufe suna Dat stane worde lufe suna Acc stan word lufe sunu Plural Nom stanas word lufa suna Gen stana worda luf(en)a suna Dat stanum wordum lufum sunum Acc stanas word lufa suna

guma (m) folde (f) Singular Nom guma folde Gen guman foldan Dat guman foldan Acc guman foldan Plural Nom guman foldan Gen gumena foldena

his

Dat him / hire /

him

Acc hine / hi(e) /

hit

hi / hie

Strong Weak

Singular M F N M F N

Nom god god god goda gode gode

Gen godes godre godes godan goda

n

godan

Dat godum godre godum godan goda

n

godan

Acc godne gode god godan goda

n

gode

Plural M F N M,F,N

Nom gode goda god godan

Gen godra godra godra godra

/godena

Dat godum godum godum godum

Acc gode goda god godan

Strong and weak verbs

Indicativ

e

Subjuncti

ve

Imperati

ve

Present ic drife Prese

nt

ic drife

þu drifest þu drife drif

he / heo drif(e)ð he /

heo/h

it

drife

we /

ge / hi

drifað we /

ge /

hi

drifen drifað

Past ic draf Past ic drife

þu drife þu drife

he /

heo/hit

draf he /

heo/h

it

drife

we /

ge / hi

drifon we /

ge /

hi

drifen

Past

Participl

e

(ge)drife

n

Indicativ

e

Subjunctiv

e

Imperativ

e

Present ic fremme Prese

nt

ic fremme

þu frem(e)st þu fremme freme

he /

heo/hi

t

frem(e)ð he /

heo/hi

t

fremme

we /

ge / hi

fremmað we /

ge / hi

fremmen fremmað

Past ic fremede Past ic fremede

þu fremedest þu fremede

he /

heo/hi

t

fremede he /

heo

fremede

we /

ge / hi

fremedon we /

ge / hi

fremeden

Past

Participl

e

(ge)freme

d

Session 3

Word order in OE

OE main clauses without special emphasis

OE dependent clause

Interrogative clauses: subject-verb inversion (no auxiliary)

Negative clause: particular ne + V + S

Case, number, plural inflection in Old English (nouns, adjectives,

determiners)

Old English nominal inflections: examples

Word Singular Plural

Nominative (þæt) word (þá) word

Accusative (þæt) word (þá) word

Genitive (þæs) wordes (þára) worda

Dative (þæm) worde (þæm)

wordum

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